Yuri Pompeev
History and philosophy of entrepreneurship in Russia
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1. The author of the present work "History and philosophy entrepreneurship in Russia" is Professor, Doctor of Cultural Studies and Russian writer Yuri Pompeev. This book is, in our view, a real masterpiece, and can justly take place in the Russian historiography next to the volumes of "History of the Russian State" by N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) and Complete lectures on the Russian history by academician S.F. Platonov (1860-1933). Y.A. Pompeev is particularly concentrating on entertaining scenes of everyday life of the people in Russian history. The rich experience of human management in harsh environmental conditions creates enterprise and lays the foundations for the formation and development of commercial, industrial and banking business in Russia of IX - XX centuries. 00000001
1. In culture (lat. cultura - cultivation, elaboration, care, upbringing, education, development, reverence) distinction is done between material objects, being result of productive labor, but also spiritual side (religion, knowledge) and behavior (working habits, customs, rituals). History in this sense is nothing but activities of man pursuing his aims. The first attempts to understand the economic development as different forms and stages following each-others (gathering and hunting, ranching, farming) belong to antiquity. Agriculture ancient Greeks based on arable lands and craft. Known is the disdain for these occupations. "You cannot lead the life of an artisan and at the same time improve in virtue" - Aristotle believed. Neighbors of the Scythians, breeding horses being partially involved in grain farming, the Greeks considered barbarians. Hunters and gatherers of gifts of far northern forests are placed in the lowest stage of development, called savagery. 01010001
2. The Romans were farmers - conquerors. Work, in their minds, with the first calends was destiny and heritage of slaves and prisoners who had no history. Society of the Roman Empire was divided into unprecedentedly rich manufacturers that used in the production of manual labor mercenaries, slaves and freemen, who lived at public expense. The reason for the fall of the Roman Empire was the economic and moral exhaustion. 01010002
3. Mighty revolution in the sphere of economic relations, as well as in other areas, made Christianity, sanctifying work in general, and proclaiming the equality of all before God. As the purpose of life Christ established moral perfection. In general, the ideals of the New Testament meet the most fundamental needs of human nature, and therefore strongly and deeply acted and continue to act on people. Religious belief is the most free of human beliefs. At the same time religion is an inexhaustible source of consolation in human suffering and the highest ideal of good spots in the abnegation of all desires. 01010003
4. American historian and ethnographer LG Morgan (1818-1881) proved the first position on the development of ownership from collective to private and identified the following milestones of economic and cultural development of mankind:
5. To three periods - savagery, barbarism and civilization in the history of the world economy divided also the Scottish philosopher A. Ferguson (1723-1816). Transition from savagery to barbarism, has been linked to the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry, and the introduction of private property. 01010008
6. German economist Liszt (1789-1846) on the basis of social division of labor identifies five stages in the development of economic life: wildness; pastoralism; farming, agriculture and handicrafts; agriculture, crafts and trade. 01010009
7. At the end of the XIX century socio-economic thought, reflecting the socio-cultural foundations of the economy and business, a three-stage scheme comprised development of the world economy (K. Bücher), comprising: a closed household, urban agriculture, national economy. To this scheme an American ethnographer P. Buchanan added the stage, based on industry and factory and the resources of the world's infrastructure. 01010010
8. The desire to express a huge amount of factual material, characterizing economic and cultural diversity of the peoples of the world economy in general forms of land led to the development of certain criteria. Thus, the German geographer E. Hahn (1892) adopted such criteria and used the division: a) the basic tools and techniques on the ground, b) the size and shape of fields, c) the division of labor by sex and age, d) the connection with cultivation of traditional rituals, e) the global transport system. 01010011
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1. Forms of world economy (Map E. Hahn, Eastern hemisphere)
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9. Hahn shows on the map the following types and forms of farms: hunting and fishing, hand-powered agriculture, plow and plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, hand-powered agriculture with cattle breeding, hunting and fishing with reindeer herding, cattle with hunting and fishing and industries for the development of non-agricultural areas. Western European and Slavic peoples' territories Kahn includes to plow-using agriculture. 01010014
10. In intergeneric and intertribal warfare (we and they) has been formed the personality (I), independent from the team developing his agility, initiative, creativity, finding ways to assert himself, consolidating the fact of being right. Every business day, and year demanded more and more individual exertion, intellectual energy in the development of industry and trade. History has preserved brilliant characters and personalities: Prometheus, Hercules, Svyatogor, Ilya Muromets, Mikula Selyaninovich and hundreds of other giant phenomenal appearances of national experience during centuries 01010015
11. From the beginnings of the civilization man and citizen have indicated awareness of their rights and duties in the economic life, due to the separation of crafts from agriculture, the development of metallurgy, with the deepening geographic and social division of labor, trade, with the emergence of private property, free enterprise and government. 01010016
12. Private property as self-defense against poverty has gradually led to increasing contradictions between people. Owners have engaged protection of their personal interests, gaining autonomy and losing dependence on the tribe and the state. Hunger, poverty, adversity, geography taught people to sea-faring and merchant trade. 01010017
13. Turning to ancient civilizations, you may recognize that the Greeks were above all inspired of military glory and love for Hellas, Roman legions inspired of mined gold, Arabians raised by their bigotry, the ancient Mongols craved blood, Normans were ignited by the spirit of bravades and robbery. Ancient Slavs, our ancestors were fighting for independence and peacefully colonized wasteland, did not notice how elected princes with hired militia turned into military and police force, and the battle for border security escalated into war for joining more and more new lands and peoples. 01010018
1. The imperial policy of the authorities was under construction on acquired from Varangians and become congenital tendency of combatants - their habit to campaigns and the robberies, alien to indigenous people of these lands since the time of still Scythian plowmen. 01020001
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| 2. Vessel of Russian seafarers |
2. But the same Novgorodians in the IX century were engaged in sea robbery and trade with the western Slavs and Germans. Calling of Varangians in 862 was caused, of course, by early acquaintance of Novgorodians to those areas. Predatory activity concerned also actually Russian lands about what chroniclers mention as national disasters. In the similar way Novgorodians subordinated to themselves and collected a tribute a robbery of various Finno-Ugric tribes occupying spaces to the East from Novgorod to the Ural Mountains. Tribute of Russia, according to data Acad. S.G. Strumilin, such tribes, as Chudes, Mairies, Vesis, Muroms, Cheremises, Mordvans, Perm, Pechora, Yams, Lithuanians, zimigola, kors, norova, lib [81; 456-457]. 01020003
3. The spirit of enterprise was primordial property of our northern tribes, and trade since the time of Homer was semi-industrial, semi-military, semi-predatory activity. The balance of forces buyer-seller determined the action - to descend and rob or trade? Residents of coastal communities decided according to economic standpoints. 01020004
4. Russians were participants of great historical upheavals of European and Asian medieval times, in the terminology of modern writer, they conquered one sixth of the world's dry surface, harsh space with hard work after glaciation. Unclear in the history of the country is the question: why they moved to the North across the ancient Aryan tribes through the fertile land, not yet being snapped up by someone else with more favorable destiny? Why did our ancestors decide to settle down and grow roots unbroken in thin fibers from areas settled by godless Finno-Ugric tribes to the Pacific Ocean, in so intolerable and economically unattractive conditions, in which not to this day dwelled any numerous people having historical extent, fame or culture? 01020005
5. And the conclusion is that without supernatural Will, guiding hand, Divine Veil, but only on their efforts on whims Russian tribes would have been destroyed by the great wild space or sunk down to primitive, cave living level. 01020006
6. Of course, the colonization of the northern and some other parts of our land is not a mystery to those skilled in the country's history. The desire of the Russian peasantry to increase the surplus product of their harvest with the enormous mass of labor invested, made him to learn about the vast expanse of land of the East European Plain on the way to go preemptive continuous expansion of production areas. In addition, according to N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), Slavs, probably after other nations withdrew from the East, from the fatherland of indigenous peoples [7;53]. Indeed, at the turn of the old and new eras there was a strong migration of peoples from Asia to Europe and the Slavs, not warlike by nature, according to M P Pogodin (1800-1875), were already at a certain level of education, familiar with agriculture and primitive arts, talked a rich language, and had an idea and beliefs about God and the afterlife, things they had brought with them from their ancestral home in India, with whom they still exhibit affinity [7;69]. 01020007
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3. Scheme of the Slavic peoples of the original areas of their habitat
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7. Other European nations proclaimed that they exist without space. In Russia, they say, on the contrary: there is space without people, massive amounts of steppes and forests, causing special geopolitical, climatic and multi-ethnic state, diversity of economic structures, immensity of the territory, which existed already under Yaroslav the Wise in the XI century, equal in size to the rest of Europe. External relations, despite the dominance of primitive farming, since the time of Rurik had a branched character. Russians mastered the way to Byzantium, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Russian businessmen and fishers traded in the Baltics, Danube, in Baghdad, Constantinople and Alexandria are absorbed at the Khazar (Caspian), Russian (Black) and Varangian (Baltic) seas. Local entrepreneurs have pledged to economic stability and cultural and political development of Russia. 01020009
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| 4. A.I. Putilov |
8. Russian people of the Neolithic time gave Christ a nation of enterprising characters destined for the geographic space and exploits. These include, for example, chairman of the Company and Director of the Putilov factories and of Russian Asian Bank A.I. Putilov (1866 - after 1926). Owner of oilfields, skilful player on the exchange, receives tens of salary opportunities, has a titanic working capacity. He works day and night, having great organizational skills, self-discipline, intuition, ability to think perspectively. A.I. Putilov first in the morning appeared in the office of the bank and left far beyond midnight after sessions, meetings, dozens of boards, hundreds of securities, for which there were tons of cement, oil barrels, poods of grain, miles of railroads. Man of his word, practices and rationalist, combines the features of a dreamer and visionary. For himself A.I. Putilov spent modest amounts of money, meticulously bargained with cabbies [73; 152]. 01020011
9. In this case, the primary economic activities aimed at the production of the means necessary to sustain human life, for direct consumption (food, clothing, housing) remain important in the world economy today. Just these kinds of economic concerns were and are a source of energy and motor for entrepreneurship and business. 01020012
10. Our country has a rich heritage in economic activity. Establishment of business in Russia has come a long and difficult way from peddling to some of he world's largest enterprises. Business relationship, the most important part of which is entrepreneurship, has played an important role in the folding of the economic, cultural and political traditions of Russian life. 01020013
1. In what follows, we cannot do without linguistic research. And here's why. The key notion in the my course is the word tax, which in most soviet dictionaries is absent altogether or is replaced by synonymous fee, in some cases by the noun extortion. 01030001
2. World history of these concepts (taxes and levies) are monetary tributes of conquered people to the winners. 01030002
3. Since Biblical times is known the commandment of Joseph Magnificent to Kabalenian people of Egypt: When the harvest is available give one fifth to the Pharaoh and four parts shall be your own, to seed your fields, and nutrition your children and those who live in your households [Gen., 47,24]. This law - the fifth share of Pharaoh persisted thousands of years and allowed the writer L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) to call it the apology for violence of political economy. 01030003
4. In the epics of peoples living in remnants of the tribal system before the formation of state, for example, the Altai nationalities, there is no words for relatives or brothers. Instead there is the expression of the people, paying tribute [63; 33]. Neither is there the term family, but instead there is the concept of monogamous small family and active struggle for it; mentioned are only relatives who live next door to each other and get together for the holidays on the occasion of marriage. 01030004
5. Tribute - a concept made to the epic story. Enemy (Khan-violence) not only grabs sister or wife, it destroys the yard and camp and takes people to distant realms, and imposes tribute, which is charged with extreme cruelty, cattle is roaring, people crying. 01030005
6. But the imposition of tribute, which bore the character pay-off or contribution, was the first step to pacifying hostile parties, starting to develop the concept of citizenship. Defeated, paying tribute paid off the right to life and liberty. 01030006
7. Exactions levied direct effect. People were accustomed to hierarchical society, to the order of giving a share of income to the governor. Otherwise, hostile Khan threatens the hostaged hero in chains if not a tribute is brought, there is a tail of wolf, the wolf comes, dragging his spear, with him war comes. To the imprisoned there is no mercy: "Inside the copper store a copper magnate lives, as big as a mountain, sits and keeps his black scores. "This Khan treasurer governs all copper and black iron [63, 49,50]. 01030007
8. Right to levy taxes the state put up for auction. Tax collector became the one who promised the highest bidder. From taxes there was no mercy to anyone. Fortress walls around the cities not only protected citizens from enemies, but also did not let them escape from the tax collectors. Great chemist A.L. Lavoisier (1743-1794) acted more than twenty years as the general tax collector of France, and among other publicans, hated by the new bourgeoisie, was guillotined by the sentence of the Revolutionary Tribunal. 01030008
9. It is clear that the tax collectors do not deserve kind words among people. Publican - resourceful man, but petty, roguish, unrighteous, greed. 01030009
10. In Russia, the main payers of tribute proved to be smerds. Smerd is serf, according to V.I. Dahl (1801-1872), a man from the mob, a sneaky native, peasant commanding servants or slaves, and later - of serfs. 01030010
11. In Middle Ages, institutions emerged uniting people (shop community, merchant guilds and brotherhoods, villages, parishes) capable of expressing their members' demands; prevented people of transforming into amorphous mass, herd, from the standpoint of authorities maintained the ease of collecting taxes. This rule applied in the pre-Mongol Rus' and the Golden era of Holy Russia the Moscow State, and at the time of statehood of Petersburg period, the slogan of which was the triple formula of the so-called paternalistic state: "Autocracy - Orthodoxy - Nationality". Landowners carefully explained to the peasants - we are yours, you are ours. Later known to us servants for decades proclaimed, all for the benefit of man, all in the name of man, and humorists added: we know the man's name. Right were satirist: The authorities in Russia have always thought about the people, another question is - what? 01030011
12. Interpreting and explaining the details of the word nalog, V.I. Dahl produces it from the verb "to impose" and takes our attention to the subordinate concepts: tax - taxes, duties money or supplies; charges imposed on the estate, trade, crafts. 01030012
13. Direct tax, according to V.I. Dahl, is applied directly to those who pay (eg, capitation, guild, judicial, revenue and other state duties). The term duty in antiquity meant custom according to belief in the need to obey the generally accepted norms and, in particular, any long existing collection. Duties for seafaring vessels were known already in "Russian Pravda» (XI c). 01030013
14. Indirect tax is not imposed directly on taxpayers, although they cannot get around it (the tax on wine and tobacco). 01030014
15. V.I. Dahl presents as similar concepts: tax on labor, burden, hard work, stress, strain. Taxpaying hardworking man, worker. 01030015
16. In ancient Rus types of direct and indirect taxes were very diverse. First emerged in the form of fees, they moved gradually in taxes [18 182]. For example, strangles (muta, Mauth) of the fee for services rendered to trade for transportation of goods from one pier to another, or the ordering of trades involving various arrangements. This turned into an indirect tax on all trades, based on weight, number, use, measured by standard weights and measures, which were kept in churches. 01030016
17. Since the time of the Golden Horde originated a purely trading fee from the advertised price of the goods - Tamga (brand, mark, stamp), it turned later into the customs duty. The term ясак (yasak) was used for a tribute for non-Russian freight on Volga, levied by Horde in the XIII century 01030017
18. State taxes in general, dues, tributes and taxes, on capitation and on land, covered in Russia the term подать (podaty - tax). Unit was salary when calculating the direct charges, in different periods of Russian history as the tax units were used: smoke, hearth, yard, ral, the plow, the husband, the man who was charged to serve. All of these units were reduced to one individual households. By the middle of the XIX century burghers and peasants of all kinds formed the taxable estate. On it lay respective responsibilities, to which they must comply, according to law or custom (in every class of society their trespass that the city, the donors, the village, the custom; in some cases custom, in another csar's decree). 01030018
19. To pay tribute was traditionally expressed 'тягл тянути' (tyagl tyanuti - pull taxes) meant that Russian peasant anciently kept land as a 'traction ground' to send all income from it to the treasury of the landowner. V.I. Dahl explains that 'tyagly' farmer 'pulls tyaglets' full tax for two persons, usually peasant remained tax payer, that is as long as he remained in strength and was not cripled, from his marriage to the age of 60 years, then moved either 'polutyaglye' (paying half tax) a quarter tax or was completely exempt. As taxpayer was considered also worker, paying taxes, rents, duties and sending all income to the owner of the allotment, complete for the lot of land and meadows. Tractive was called the land allotment, the rest - spare, belonging to community or church. Every layout in the Russian community was on the taxes (husband and wife or family in the peasantry, until a man for his age or his health was considered taxfree) or on the souls, two souls considering the family; in case of multifamily, whoever got land for two, paid accordingly two taxes. 01030019
20. So what is such 'тягло'? V.I. Dahl explains, and the measure of the earth, and complete information about it is called 'тягло'. In olden times, also every direct payment was called 'тягло'. This term is embodied in proverbs: 01030020
21. Marry at 18, start sitting on the tax; not hard your tax, but as doubled tired you get; no legs on the stove, no hands in the cradle, yes third dead - tax; tax is hateful, laying peaceful. 01030021
22. The term 'тягло' (tax) is a key concept in the history of domestic business. In the Explanatory Dictionary of Russian language it is derived from the verb 'тянуть' - pull (tyagivat or тягать - draw) branches from which are drawn to the reprint of V.I. Dalhl's publication, where it occupies 7 columns. For comparison, to the verb 'to love' of our language allotted 4 columns verbs work, and try to please - 3 column verb trade - 1.5 column. Incidentally, we note that of the formative nouns in the native language on the first place is hand (8 columns), after it - God and truth (6 columns), and will and head (4 columns) and labor (one and a half). Adjectives of color foremost is white (10 columns); to word black is allotted space less than half of that (5 columns), red - only 3 columns. 01030022
23. In today's legal encyclopedia, taxes are defined as:
24. About the size and means of tax fraud (combined with fiscal criminal Press), an appropriate modern parable is the case of two dairy farms. On one farm the hay was stolen and sold, and on the other milk. In the first case, of course, cows died, but the second gave even some profits and farm income to peasant. The current tax system in Russia is working according to the first scheme. Time would be, say academics, to cease all taxation on profit going on investment, including the development of social and cultural sphere, give tax breaks to priority sectors, especially in the field of high technology, resource saving, ecologically cleaner production. It is time to allow accelerated depreciation up to half of the profits. All this, they say, have already long time ago been introduced and widely used in highly developed market economy countries. 01030030
25. It is not forbidden to dream about how to live beautifully. The main thing in the economy: the cows must not die. 01030031
1. Some researchers believe that people is divided into three categories: one can, but does not want others want, but cannot, and still others want to, and can, but focus on unproductive activities. In any society, there are unclaimed talents more than working. Entrepreneurship is precisely aimed at meeting the needs of individual creativity and self-expression. Such as self-confidence, belief in luck, luck, favorable market conditions and commercial natural inclinations. The latter are particularly in demand as one criterion for competitiveness: the excess of income over expenditure. More disadvantaged layers such as bankrupt entrepreneurs, history, perhaps, does not know. But economic history as the cornerstone of life, according to VP Ryabushinsky is a history of its leaders [44, 159], fathers are founders of Russian trade and industrial estates, those who had the gift of entrepreneurship and constituted the most fertile layer of population; their children are Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kaluga, Kostroma and other men whose fathers used to say: "If not the Lord build the house, in vain work builders." Their role is particularly high because of the low purchasing power of the peasantry constituted the majority of the Russian population. 01040001
1. In Latin exists the word mancepts - entrepreneur, contractor. So initially was called farmer who collected government revenues. The term mancipium (mancipation) in ancient Rome stood for the right of property and the property itself, which was in someone else's property, and the sale procedure. It was formed from the merger of two separate words: manus (hand - violence - power - work - labor) and capio (acquire, inherit, assign; origin of term capital). Therefore mancepts is translated also as entrepreneur - a man who has earned the capital with his hands, his work, not only by persistence, but also by cunning and dexterity. 01040101
2. By their nature, entrepreneurs are economic actors, as the economy is composed half by half of mathematics and psychology. 01040102
3. In the XVIII century in Russia was spreading French word entrepreneur (entrepreneur) denoted in popular usage business person such concepts as predpriyatel predpriyatchik, predpriimchik, entrepreneur; landlord, organizer, owner, founder, manufacturer, breeder, head fishing ringleader. In prerevolutionary Russia with the term antreprener was constantly called owners, landlords of arenas - private entertainment enterprises (theaters, circuses, etc.). However, from the French word interes also originated the term interessant, seeker of self-interest, protector of only own benefits. 01040103
4. In Russian, the word meant venturing, to execute any new business, company, start doing something significant. Examples in this regard in the dictionary of V.I. Dahl are two: "We are undertaking together the construction of a steamer" and "Lesseps undertook excavation of a canal on the Isthmus of Suez." As for the "steamship", the institution owes its Russian St. Petersburg breeder C. Byrd (1766-1843), a Scot by birth, who in 1815 opened after some experiments on the Neva River Shipping Company. The venture proved to be promising and profitable. In 1847, in all the rivers of the Volga basin swam only 12 ships, but 60 years later the number was 2099, including about a dozen double-deck passenger ships according to so-called American system. Entrepreneur C. Byrd was the founder of mechanical foundries in St. Petersburg, which built about 200 steam engines for the first 30 years of the XIX century, Including 11 steamers with steam engines. Manufacture of steam engines C. Byrd taught students - machinists, mechanics, blacksmiths - recruiting among those who could write. Besides salaries and allowances of grain from the Treasury, the founder of Russian entrepreneurial dynasty was paying students from his own means, from 5 to 15 rubles. per month for a five-year study period. 01040104
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| 5. F. Lesseps |
5. The third volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of V.I. Dahl was published in 1882, when the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805-1894) rocked as entrepreneur surprising the whole world by the construction of the Suez Canal, which linked the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Engineer got his digging concession from the government of Egypt. Lesseps later headed the corporation for the construction of the Panama Canal, which scandalously went bankrupt in 1888, and languages were enriched by the word panama designating ever since the scam, a major political and financial fraud, bribery of ministers, senators, deputies, newspaper editors and ruin after the collapse of tens of thousands of small shareholders. 01040106
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| 6. Loading of commercial ship. "Life of Nikolay the Wondercreator" |
1. We now turn to a source of economic folk culture, which is epos expressing secular ideals, historical will and striving of the people belonging to more than one century, and to the era that lasted several centuries. Not noticed only by us that epic has certain advantages, which are not extinct until today. 01040201
2. One of the most famous epic heroes became Sadko of Novgorod, who had no property before some guselki yarovchaty. However, even this corresponds to historical truth, because it is art and culture of ancient Novgorod, which represents one of the world's peaks in the development of medieval art (architecture, painting, literature, musical creativity). 01040202
3. In one of the epic versions of Sadko, following the advice of the Sea King, betting with merchants that in Lake Ilmen fish have gold feathers. But he had nothing to lay on bet. Without hesitation, he lays his head. There are three merchants that lay every three shops with goods. Sadko really catches goldfish and wins the bet. Despised poor guslyar became rich: Sadko started bargaining, began to get great profits. Sadko, as you know, was the rich guest, and rich guests in ancient Rus were commonly called foreign merchants and tradesmen engaged in commerce with foreign countries or with other principalities. The term gostba (guest of God) designated overseas trade. The most curious thing is that in his dying hour Sadko feels no merchant but Guslyar. He does not leave his harp even before his death. 01040203
4. Businessman in Russia is of a creative nature. Man remains always a creature acting on general level, holistic, microcosm, though he chooses a special activity. Make a person a gear of a huge machine means depriving him of the human dignity. 01040204
5. In the modern interpretation the entrepreneur is a citizen engaged in entrepreneurial activity associated with investment for profit (business income) as a result of his own (or borrowed) capital and waged labor, based on a combination of personal gain with own life assertion and public benefit. Entrepreneur - a person with unstable income, is the leader of ideas, not of hierarchy. Entrepreneurs are different from other people so that they can take full responsibility for the final outcome of the case. They are the owners of the enterprise (sole or associate) involved in its management. 01040205
6. Entrepreneurship is legal activity, business activity within the current law, creation of something new, having value, a process that absorbs time and effort, involving the assumption of financial, moral and social responsibility. The process of entrepreneurship as one of the factors (resources) of social reproduction is intended to connect, combine basic factors - labor, capital, ecosphere. 01040206
7. The Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Article 2) is legally enforceable understanding of entrepreneurship: 01040207
8. "Entrepreneurial activity is undertaken at own risk systematically aiming at profit from the use of property, sale of goods, works or services by persons registered as such in accordance with the law" [14, 6]. 01040208
9. As you can see, at the forefront of this initiative of citizens' activities carried out on its behalf at its own risk and on own financial responsibility, or on behalf of and under the responsibility of a firm of legal entity (company), gaining profit, although it is known since antiquity that next to profit lies the possibility of loss. Entrepreneurial activity is not a win-win stencil. 01040209
1. Entrepreneurship can be applied in all kinds of economic activities, if they are not prohibited by legislative acts, including notably the production of goods and services, commercial mediation, commerce and procurement, innovation (renewal), consulting and other activities, as well as security transactions. Entrepreneurial process usually consists of the following steps: 1) search for a new idea and its assessment 2) construction of a business plan 3) finding the necessary resources 4) management of the created enterprise. 01040301
2. Among the adopted regulations on the development and regulation of market entrepreneurship we will list the following:
3. In accordance with these acts an entrepreneur can be a citizen of the Russian Federation, any foreign national or a stateless person, a group of citizens (partners). Entrepreneurs cannot be executives and specialists of government agencies, whose functions include matters related to business activities or control of such activities. 01040306
4. Part of the profit retained by the entrepreneur after taxes and interest on the loan taken by him, is the entrepreneurial income in the form of personal income, dividends, profits, salaries, etc. 01040307
1. World experience shows that the market economy is possible only in the presence of numerous stratum of entrepreneurs - people with business acumen and energy, with a specific set of values, culture, relationships and ethics. 01040401
2. In contrast to the administrative system of management relying on diligence and responsibility for the fulfillment of the subjects above, policy objectives, economic entities in the market economy achieve their goals by independent creative search through initiative, risk-taking and luck. 01040402
3. There are following signs of entrepreneurship: the independence and originality of thought and action in business entity; innovation and achievement of the objectives, building on own initiative; taste for competition and a willingness to take economic risks; focus on achieving the best results; the efficient use of resources; the desire to win better position than others; the ability to choose among the possible alternatives. 01040403
4. Students of the University of Culture and Arts, as a result of sociological sampling have presented a list of ten personal qualities required of an effective entrepreneur today (2001):
5. Outside the top ten were mentioned qualities such as honesty and integrity, erudition, healthy lifestyle. 01040405
6. As initial conditions for entrepreneurship can be mentioned: private property, free pricing, competition and legal protection of the legitimate principle of individuality. The last principle is associated with an awareness of citizenship in the public mind and determined will of not allowing the nation to be governed as a flock of sheep. 01040406
1. Theory of entrepreneurship has developed in several directions: from the individual having the ability of foresight and to take risks and the implementation of them in order to generate additional income, with simultaneous willingness to losses (R. Kantgaon, I. Tyunen, Phil Knight), through the representation of a basic function of the entrepreneur in the implementation of a rational combination of factors of production and extraction of business income (JB Say, A. Marshall) by recognizing innovative entrepreneurial activity as the main productive force of economic production process super-profits, and not the average profit (Schumpeter); the fourth direction is associated with management activities of the entrepreneur with a corporate form of organization of production (Galbraith, M. Porter, R. Hizrich, HB Stewart). 01050001
1. To have success in business requires a certain type of person with a strong desire to achieve. Adam Smith (1723-1790) has mentioned several fundamental characteristics of human nature, most typically manifested in the activities of entrepreneurs:
2. Entrepreneur as the founder of a new business is more concerned with the prospects of business development, rather than short-term profit. According to psychologists, to this kind of activity in an environment capable of autonomous decision-making is present in no more than 12-15 % of people. This category of people must possess a number of qualities such as hard work, energy, determination, willingness to take risks and collapse, social responsibility, heightened sense of intuition, instinct of constructiveness. Instinct, intuition, exposure of calculation, finding hidden meaning in information and other heuristics are the hallmark properties, skates of entrepreneur in risk situations and have the ability to solve them advantageously from his point of view. 01050102
3. Entrepreneurial personality type, embodied in three persons (conqueror, manager and trader), is defined by German sociologist Werner Sombart (1863-1941) as a heterogeneous, unlike homogeneous bourgeois type. 01050103
4. Success in business entrepreneurship is not always dependent on education and so 90% of it is provided by ambition and desire to compete. However, decades of industrial growth in developed countries have shown that increasing the educational level objectively leads to the development of entrepreneurial skills, the desire to express themselves freely in labor. Thus, since the late 70-ies of 20th century began a renaissance of interest in entrepreneurship in economic theory. In all capitalist countries entrepreneurial education system began to unfold (although the first training programs in the United States took place already in 1940's.). This coincided with the growth of privatization in the UK, China and other countries, and has become an entrepreneurial response to a boom in business, manifested in significant increase in the number of small firms in general and expanding their spheres of economic activity. 01050104
5. It is believed that to business are more inclined individuals, aiming at success and not being afraid of defeat. Profits they ascribe to their abilities and efforts, but also deficits are linked to this activity, with insufficient mobilization of the reserves now and this is a lesson for the future. Having the ability to get out of risky situations, an experienced innovator turns the defeat to success better than others. 01050105
6. Enterprise as a wide field of creativity fully reflect the personality and character of its creator. 01050106
1. The key values of innovation and economic culture appear to be originality of thought and creative research, organizational flexibility, focus on constant innovation, variety and intensity of contacts, respect for the identity of individuals, groups and nations, etc. [1; 73]. Transition to the innovative growth inevitably entails higher specific gravity values and gives space to a purely entrepreneurial motivation and personal behavior. 01050201
2. American economist Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950) has identified three main groups of business motives:
3. As starting point for the identification of the ideal entrepreneur can serve the seeking of novelty or business for business as such for a cause greater than that of employees and managers, the desire for independence and autonomy. 01050203
4. The greatest success in business, as history shows, was not achieved by those who pursued the goal of personal enrichment, had a habit of looking at all the benefits, saving money for the development of the business, but by those entrepreneurs who preferred commitment to provide a valuable service to society (Athanasius Nikitin, P.D. Larin, Demidov, Henry Ford), who were involved in a broad charity, those who needed money to carry out their dreams, achieve higher goals (R. Owen, G. Shliman, K.S. Alekseev - Stanislavsky, V. Tretyakov, etc.). These services (wealth obliges) aim to achieve higher intellectual, cultural, moral and ethical values of public importance. 01050204
5. Dictionary of V.I. Dahl mentions the words благотворительность, меценатство (charity, patronage) being derived from the word благовеличие, a word the derivatives of which comprise in the Explanatory dictionary of 9 columns. Major drivers of philanthropy in Russia of 19th century and early 20th century (note a whole galaxy of domestic patrons, such as P.P. Svinin, S.F. Mamontov, K.T. Soldatenkov, V.A. Kokorev Bakhrushins, Kaptsova, Morozov, Rukavishnikov Yu.S. Nechaev - Maltsev L.S. Polyakov, S.P. Riabushinsky) served religious and patriotic motives, and getting fame, nobility, social benefits and privileges (honorable nobility, orders, titles, profitable commercial transactions, etc.). 01050205
6. Based on the methodology of ideal types of entrepreneurial culture, the German economist and sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) mentions that the desire to income and monetary benefits relate to people of all professions and classes of all ages and countries of the world where environmental conditions provide any opportunities for gain [6; 29]. A systematic and rational pursuit of legitimate profits within their profession is able to form, in his view, only a certain ethical system of economic human behavior - namely Protestantism, which does not condemn, like Catholicism and other world religions, wealth as such. On the contrary, this type of entrepreneurial ownership, acquisition gives nothing but good feeling of fulfilling duty within one's vocation [1, 74]. Such wealth was regarded as evidence of excellence and entrepreneur being awarded by gaining and squandering capital was seen on a par with the righteous. As a criterion of efficiency, Protestant capitalism is contrasted with other capitalism - opportunistic, usurer, relying on cash payment, impudence, selfishness and deceit. 01050206
7. Biography of Weber embodied the idea of entrepreneurial legacy: his grandfather belonged to the traditional layer of merchants; his mother was a reputed model of hard work and devotion. The interpretation of M. Weber of the new entrepreneurial spirit emerged as a synthesis of the awareness of religious and economic aspirations of his family. 01050207
8. Modern Catholic Church considers the economy to cultural and business sphere, and accordingly considers entrepreneurship as cultural and business activity. In the recent literature with reference to the New Testament proves that unconditional condemnation in it concerns only "unrighteous wealth, based on breach of general moral principles of human relations," and that "contrary to popular belief," the gospel "does not contain a condemnation of wealth as such" [31, 328]. 01050208
9. Historical destiny of entrepreneurship, as well as market and competition, is determined by historical epochs, each of which (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, Industrial capitalism, Post-industrial production, etc.) generates its own unique patterns of enterprise, its scope, objects, law and morality. 01050209
1. European Protestantism preached that the rich man is pleasing God, and the poor is sinful; who is rich, he is hardworking, so he is chosen by the Lord, who does not beat but supports him. It is supposed that someone whoever has become rich by unjust methods is indecent and sinful. 01060001
2. Primordially Russian Orthodox farmers, industrialists and traders associated their successful employment with the manifestation of God's will and deeds, the test of the strength of their faith to God was: God gave, God also takes, like the balance of births and deaths. The idea of the omnipotence of Lord God in the peasant life was generated by extremely unfavorable weather conditions in most parts of the Russian state, sometimes nullifying the results of hard work: if God does not allow, the earth does not give; God gets what he wants, man only what he can. 01060002
3. The American cult of wealthy people has not taken root in Russia and such, for example, as John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937), robbed people for their own happiness to prove to the world. We endured also the cynical slogan of the pioneers of modern reformers: as long as we do not rob people, it will not work.. 01060003
4. Russian people kept saying that God gives the wealth to man to be used and requires a report on it. Although the root concepts are common for Бог, богатства - (God - wealth) as it is inherent only in our language as, indeed, also the common root for words, God and the squalor, poverty. But the sense of fragility, the sinfulness of wealth was specifically a national trait, as reflected in particular in the passive position of a considerable part of the Russian bourgeoisie in October 1917 and after, the bourgeois elite, moreover, was for many decades in various fields of civilization with the Russian people. 01060004
5. A.S. Griboyedov (1795-1829), writer and diplomat, a lover of Russian antiques, folk poetry, folk beliefs, customs and dress, long ago and shrewdly remarked about Russia: 01060005
6. "If some event should be listed here for a foreigner who does not know Russian history for a century, he certainly would take the sharp contrast of the morals that gentlemen and peasants come from two different tribes who have not yet mixed up customs and mores "[59, 9]. 01060006
7. In general, entrepreneurs are wary of Russian society, especially the most part - the peasantry, committed to community psychology with its equalized, suspicious attitude toward any other activities not related to the traditions of the community, and understandable to the masses convinced that it is better to be poor, but live according to conscience. In nobility towards merchants and industrialists dominated class prejudices (black bone), and large landowners sought to shield Russia from industrial capitalism by slavophilistic legislation. A considerable part of the intelligentsia raznochintsy (non-possessors) was convinced that wealth can only be achieved by deceit, theft, robbery and other unfair means (not to be in hell, not to amass wealth, devil for the rich children swings; for the rich devils forge money). Apt expression of M.I. Tsvetaev (1892-1941): the consciousness unrighteousness of money is in the Russian soul inextractable. This is why in the national consciousness wealth does not serve as an indicator of virtue. 01060007
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| 7. Vessel construction, 11th century |
8. Foreign entrepreneurs carefully studied their acquaintances among Russian merchants. They were religious people, but no deal could be done without drinking tea in an inn, and a at the fair of Makarevskoy mid 17th century daring little merchant head could throw a bunch of money for the payment of the evening, and at the same time wear decades the same coat and boots and bottles. 01060009
9. Foreigners noticed that Orthodox chanting service perpetuated priority of the spiritual and moral principles over material. At the core of enterprise dominated not only economic success, but also service to the idea, society, harmonization of individual creativity and collectivist principles. Work must be not only productive, but also useful for others. Approval of other entrepreneurs was a matter of conscience. 01060010
10. Consider from this angle two key concepts of the Russian people: артель (gang) and the мир (folk), which reflect community psychology. 01060011
11. Artel, according to V.I. Dahl, is a partnership for mutual responsibility, brotherhood, where all are for one, one is for all, squad, consent, community, society, fraternity, bratchina for the general economy, particularly food, also to work together and section earnings, net of expenses, absenteeism. Despite the fact that the concept of the farm as a voluntary random mix of people, the benefits of it were recognized already in the 17th century Traces of it can be seen in the "Russian Truth" and to a certain extent in the documents of the community of the 17th century Novgorod at St. John the Baptist's church. From ancient times, the nature of the artel is clearly family-like, but its strength is in mutual consent and assistance: artel porridge is thick, one and cereals do not argue, in the family also porridge is thicker. 01060012
12. In the history of domestic business known cooperative following: Burlatskii Gornozavodsk, Artel masons, carpenters, fishermen, profiteers, laborers, and later - stock cooperative in St. Petersburg and Moscow, fishing, trade, craft, regimental and beggarly farmers. 01060013
13. Each guild chose boss Ataman, elder or foreman: through Ataman the gang is strong. So strong that the team of the city takes it seriously, if it turns into a band of, a mob, gang, mob, ospreys, a lot of people, the flock. 01060014
14. Life in Great Russia, as we know, cannot be thought without the rural population (mir), based on dependence of the community, on brotherly love and mutual responsibility to each other. World was like a family, set himself the law of collectivist principles: save and avoid expenditure; do not run ahead, do not fall behind; behind - became an orphan, though posterior, but in the same herd. Lack of full equality in the mundane meeting obvious for a long time: in the middle satisfied, but at the ends rebelling. Man is no less inclined to outrage as to obedience. So subordinate all tendencies to human nature in general. 01060015
15. Ratio of personal and collective elements evolved always in favor of generality: the world salivating spit - so the sea to peace Applications zalozhgasya head. World tied as the overall benefit and common problem: people - Ivan and I - Ivan, people in the water, nyav water. In devotion to the world known as the amount of moral force to provide bail people's happiness, international security: where the world but the people there are ladybug grace that the world order, God judged. People's belief that the world is strong and indestructible (worldly neck thick, Tuga, wiry) breeds irresponsibility and blind consciousness: Valnet the world - will carry all, go to the world, but not of arrival, even though he and the neck. From this belief arose and rules of conduct of individuals who come into the world and obey the common interests and values: smart guy, but the world fool; live with wolves - in wolf's way howl, when went into the herd - no barking and tail wagging, but then learned. 01060016
16. Collaborative indulgence mendicant, a cheap charity associated primarily with Russian commercial and industrial estate, which at various stages of its formation was not alien to the contraction of wealth. Having low social status in comparison with, say, the nobility, it all means sought to strengthen its economic position, although getting the surplus product within the agricultural sector and in trade and industrial sector was a matter of long and often sinless, as evidenced by the folk wisdom: hard righteous not to make the stone chambers. 01060017
17. Unknown author of the XVIII century left us way Anisimitch, a native of the merchant class, which is a wealth of knocks from the right path: first with a certain priest Isaac, he robs his father, then gets to the robbers, which also reserves the thieves without their production [26 278-279]. The plot of the novel Don Quixote new genus based on the biography of an Old Believer merchant Vassily Anisimovich Chupyatov referred G.R. Derzhavins (1743-1816) in his ode "grandee"
18. According to V. Ryabushinsky in Moscow merchant unwritten hierarchy stood atop respect industrialist manufacturer. Then came merchant-trader, and stood at the bottom of the man who gave money growth into account bills, forced to work capital. It is not very respected, like cheap money it may be and as it is decent he was, - percenter [44; 165]. 01060019
19. Russian V.V. Vereshchagin (1842-1904), traveling in the Altai region, pointed out entire villages consisting except telegraph, customs official and a priest entirely of merchants, leading usurious trade with aliens and Mongolia. About percentage of lucre, for example, Chui traders eloquently testified their palaces Biisk. Is typically then dizzying growth capital Mokina merchant who came to Altai camp in 1860 a small trader, who had five horses and 10 head of cattle. In 1875 he was included up to 3,000 head of cattle in 1887, handing the goods on credit for 25,000 rubles. only Altaici, subdue them a debt obligation, the trade turnover of an entrepreneur amounted to 150,000 rubles. Over the vast territory under the summer pastures, winter distillate, hayfields and under homestead Mokin Altaici paid nothing, and in government coffers contribute only 6 rubles a year in rent. Trading profits, according to observations Vereshchagin, was primarily the result of calculation and deceit consequence bondage and personal dependence of local farmers, hunters and herdsmen [63, 238-240]. 01060020
20. Another example - a monastery near the Teles lake emerged in 1862 on the initiative of Barnaul merchant Malkova in bringing the government land concessions empty-lying Chulyshman valley in order to spread Christianity in the Altai and civilization. But the void land existed only on paper, but living near the Lake Teles Altai faced with a choice: either get out of here on the poor and uncomfortable, or to pay rent to the monastery. For the right to put the tent in our native places Altaian had to pay and collected the money given to them only one church, one rub. per year for the right to sow barley - 1 rub. pood sown seeds; for grazing cattle - 25 kopecks a head, small - 5 kopecks.; harvested hay for mop - 10 kopecks, for the use of forest - 1 rub. per year [63, 243]. 01060021
21. Considering versions of the origin of entrepreneurial culture in general, we should agree with the conclusion of Fernand Braudel (1902-1985), author of the fundamental work on the history of the world of the middle ages and the new era, that she "could not get out of a strictly limited source: his word said here economics, his word - politics; his word - society; he also used the words culture and civilization. And also history that has often been the ultimate authority, which determines the correlation of forces "[7, 78]. 01060022
22. This conclusion is most applicable to domestic realities. 01060023
23. Historical science in purely external, esoteric way proves that the Russian people turned to Christianity with the blessing of God, created a comprehensive set of orthodoxy, confessional orthodoxy received from the Creator. Russian people embraced Christianity on a whim, with Most Lucent mind, pure soul, it was already truly great in all deeds, wise people, mysterious, that is, designed to address specific challenges ahead, not yet revealed to mankind, with the soul of good will. It was the people of the Sun Christ, who was able to shrink prehistoric past and stamp on a steel spring, was able to withdraw into itself and re-expand in space, dominating the space with love, desire and sword. 01060024
24. This is what the present philosophers and spiritualists think of our nation - nation chosen by God. 01060025
25. There is no doubt that the Orthodox branch of Christianity grafted people under Vladimir I in 988, did not bear fruits also earlier: in the first squad of the Varyag was a lot of Christians. In 945, at the conclusion of peace with the Greeks, some Slavic warriors took the oath according to Orthodox law. 01060026
26. Commitment to the ritual side of Orthodoxy in Russia strengthened during centuries. Dutch painter and writer K. de Bruin (1652-1727), in 1701, being in Arkhangelsk, then in Moscow, in his notes amazed Russian people who "in their relations among themselves watching a rather strange custom. On entering the room, they do not say a word before, but looking for the most sacred image, which is always available in each room. Finding it, they do in front of it three bows, cross themselves at the same time saying, "Lord, have mercy!" - as well as: "Peace to the home and people living in it, and again make sign of cross, then they already say hello to the owners and lead a conversation with them. The same thing they do when visiting foreigners, creating bows before the first picture they see thus showing the fear before God, not forgetting to give him a befitting reverence "[71, 76]. 01060027
27. De Bruin painted and numbered in Moscow, in the Kremlin and in other parts as well and nearby capital, for an earthen wall, about six hundred and seventy-nine churches and monasteries, and the same with them almshouses. 01060028
28. But there is in the Russian character trait opposite to divine personal freedom. L.N. Tolstoy called this uncomplaining need to be part of the whole, part of a common destiny, self-forgetfulness in common endeavors, including refusal of personal freedom and responsibility, swarms start. From this writer's premise has grown not only Plato Karataev, but also the belief that the Russian people - being supposedly easily convinced, in and of itself, without a strict boss and suggestion, it would not go out from his hut, not even to bring out waste. Lowly people, overwhelming in its non-acquisitiveness, greyness in external life, but dishonesty, general turmoil. 01060029
29. And what is it but a lack of initiative, the need for foreign prodding? Without a thunder clap peasant will not cross fingers. Roasted cock - points our wisdom? Just look at the same Englishmen in his soul he is always the player if he is a serious businessman, and "our players are not very careful and slow, the decision is not taken immediately, but waiting, but, once it is accepted, bend the line hard and ductile despite failures " [42 159]. At the same time eloquent experts, selfishly counting every step, surprised Russian dedication and patience: send, say, a simple Russian man to his death - he goes without question, without even asking why he was sent. 01060030
30. The people in poems and prose stories are not spared. In the song of Thomas and Yarema content is satire image adventures of two brotherly persons in nature similar to each other; whatever is undertaken for any profitable activity to improve their life every attempt fails. Well-meaning as Thomas Yarema ever are by nature, but lazy to the extreme, not accustomed to serious work, but why not try easily achieve a better position. In people's satire a bubble is developed and they pretend being professional handicrafts making good trade. Brothers conceived in their heads a plan to feed themselves properly finding bread, but they are not crafts, and only serve to ruin them and wasting time and money. When this business turns out badly, the failure being their own fault and Thomas Yarema turn annoyed and sorry and take up new, according to their calculations, more profitable businesses and crafts. Comic situation for Thomas and Yarema is that their practice (simple eating) always contradicts wide designs and fantastic dispositions, enthusiasm and boasting, well reflecting eternal temptations of Russian man. Burdening peasant labor (acquiring bread by stealing it from the fields or from the barns), they undertake urban employment, trade for five cents, but never profitably: find no butter nor bread to be nourished properly. Thomas and Yarema are a mockery of true business people. 01060031
31. But among national spiritual virtues have long been valued qualities such as loyalty to Orthodoxy, piety, humility, humility, compassion, love for the common good, modesty. Vices are also recalled such as self-will, arrogance, deceit, lack of firmness, laziness, tendency to suspiciousness of others and to new ideas, especially Western ones. 01060032
32. Natural delicacy of the Russian character deprives a person of enterprise - to put themselves out of fear of assessing one too high and one's influence inconveniencing others. 01060033
33. Modern mystics do not appreciate L.N. Tolstoy, adding that the Russian people are acting by the force of some inexplicable woven design, with a unique history, which must be exaggerated tirelessly until the end of forces. In a state that stresses its citizens, where nobody else any more lives, they are not looking for individual liberty, but for the truth. 01060034
34. As a preliminary conclusion, we note that two distinguished types of Russian civilizational rationality presented by M. Weber rationality in values is much closer than rationality in purpose. 01060035
1. In Western Europe, by the definition of Max Weber, the city in ancient times was considered as a fortress and as a settlement whose inhabitants were engaged in crafts and trade more than in agriculture. In the ancient Russian city, the original term refers to any enclosure (fortified) place or settlement. In the presence of warlike neighbors population needs protection. To this end also city was created and it built fence of military defensive character, inside of which each citizen, merchant and artisan could more or less safely exercise his business. City as a special trade, military and economic unit gradually swelled from craving village courtyards; welfare and prosperity of its convenience of location was determined as the market, that is, the place where production and tools were sold and exchanged. 01070001
2. Ancient Rus is called country of towns. The main reasons for the creation of cities were popular production and trading needing suitable market conditions. 01070002
3. Old Russian city took shape mainly of three elements: the fortress bargaining tenements. In large cities, in addition to the main bargaining occurred several smaller marketplaces, sometimes with the specific fishery (hay, fish, meat, etc.). Most often, these Torzhok settled near the river bridge and crossings. 01070003
4. In some ancient cities allocated special settlements - settlements, the population of which was given to personal freedom, they were released at a time from taxes. Sloboda was often sided by a tax-free area, and eventually grew into it often. Suburban population of different specialization - known servitors, craft, fishing and other settlements. They differed as to the owners on the lands which were created: the prince, monastery, etc., initially characterize the territorial integrity and its own control system. 01070004
5. We will stay in examples of these 01070005
6. In settlements in monasteries laity formed craft villages, shopping centers. In Byelozero on the banks of the Sheksna besides ordinary houses, some served in the X-XIII centuries both workshops for casters, bone carvers, potters and others, discovered kilns, forges, dehydrators and smokehouse for fish. A high level of urban culture characterized tools for writing, writing on everyday things, the abundance of imported products [20 48,53,194,197]. 01070006
7. Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125), Prince of Kiev, paid special attention to his father's parish and Rostov-founded near his city in his name, which was destined to become the center of Vladimiro-Suzdal. The city has been put on a high bank of the river Klyaz'ma flowing into the Oka and thus associated with large Volga trade route. 01070007
8. Nizhny Novgorod, founded in 1221 by Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich on a high plateau at the confluence of Oka river to Volga, became for Vladimir-Suzdal principality an important strategic and commercial support point to its eastern borders [20, 178]. 01070008
9. Enterprising Novgorodians, already in the 11th-12th centuries paid attention to the natural sources of salt, but settlement on the site of the Permian Komis Villages emerged only around 1430, when the salt-boilers of Kalinnikova natives of Vologda, started steaming on the riverside Usolki. Thus arose Solikamsk, favorable geographical position of which, a convenient waterway for hauling salt and huge reserves of brines at shallow depths attracted many tradesmen, especially after the accession in 1472 of land along the Kama, along with Great Perm to Moscow. 01070009
10. Salt production becomes large-scale non-agricultural activity with a technology known a long time. Wells were drilled in which water was pumped back was obtained already saline, which then was evaporated in special vats. 01070010
11. Urban wooden fortress in a remote forest edge, the future Solikamsk had double log walls, the space between them was covered with earth. Fortress belted deep ditch. She had Spassky, Nikolsky, St. George, Peter and Paul and the gate five towers. At the armed fortress in the XV century There were two copper and 36 hand arquebuses, ammunition consisted of 266 iron nuclei and one pounds of lead bullets. So the city could successfully repel raids of neighbors of the Siberian Khanate. 01070011
12. A necessary feature of a European city, Weber rightly believed market presence is not sporadic and regular trade with the influx of overseas goods and handicrafts. City could occur either as a convenient transit point for them, the privileges and protection of obtaining market levies, duties, process payments. Particularly important was getting the privilege to establish the market and attract settlers that was given to clearly demonstrate their abilities entrepreneur. Most often, according to Weber, it was in the Middle Ages, especially in the eastern, northern and central European areas of town, whose people were merchants and artisans. In the space between the Pyrenees and the Rhine, there were about 90 countries grouped in the Middle Ages around urban centers 01070012
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| 8. Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhegorod kreml 14th century |
13. Around the monasteries, for example, grew many British cities. They had their existence convenient location for trade exchange, although most of the major cities in Europe emerged from the manor, especially princely, as the center of the yard, to meet the economic and political needs that specialized production, trade was conducted. City was not called oikos (Greek oikeo - inhabiting) large settlement or county, even if there were large number of dues -paying artisans and small traders, for whom production for the needs of princely court was very important, often the primary source of income [9, 309-310, 311]. 01070014
14. With Christianity in European cities penetrated the doctrine of the poor, living on alms in the name of Christ, to rich God grant silvery for the poor. Begging, some appealed to the means for the salvation of others, gradually becoming a kind of entrepreneurship. Position of the society was approved by the mendicant friars church regulations. The monks did not have any property, lived on voluntary alms, for the collection of which they went to cities, villages and hamlets, fulfilling the commandment of Pope Leo XII that, that people should not forget the commandment of charity. Old Russian custom of feeding the poor with a penny (instead of targeted assistance), only out of a pious mind, the fruit of the poor and a special kind of income - begging. Saving poor sinners were divided according to their origin as coming from graveyards, palace, yard, patriarchal, cathedral, monastery, church, walking and lying [67, 144]. Today, this classification can complemented by each of us. 01070015
15. In settlements of ancient Russia freestyle beggars who have renounced riches of this world and their property, carrying the cross of humility and patience, surrounded by the poor, lamed, Bobyli, fugitive, Pogorelov, blinded, who chose their begging as their way of life. Their services, according to the historian, were used by the magistrates and clerks, and clerks, and the boyars, and landowners, and martial people, and Tatars [67, 139]. Indulging mendicant turned to Russia in the habit. Already under Vladimir I (?-1015) were mentioned beggars, and during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (ok. 978-1054) they attain legal status in society and are accepted as church people. Such manifestations can be considered a feature of industrial life, such as: 01070016
16. Significant differences western medieval city, noticeably influenced the culture and level of economic development of entrepreneurship, can be regarded as such manifestations of trade of industrial life, such as:
17. Vital element of the medieval European city was the formation of merchant and artisan guilds (shops). Guild or shop within the boundaries of the urban community a monopoly of production or trade. Guild members paid significant amounts of money in the total cash for their corporate privileges (right to manufacture and sell their products). These offices represented the medieval mutual fund. 01070019
18. Social structure and people's life was characterized by such features as the organization of urban communities and the establishment drinking houses. Local pubs are known in the West since the time of Charlemagne (VIII cent.), as well as repeated warnings since then: that monks and clerics did not go to the inn for food and drink [67, 215]. Tavern called the Old Slavic public places known from the beginning of the XI century Drinking and eating houses, foliage collected for completion of public affairs, and for conversations Bratchina Novgorod, Kiev, the Baltic and southern Slavs. There ushers handed people ruling authorities, negotiated disputes between the debtor and the creditor. Tavern replaced later town hall and living neighborhood. "Russian Truth" in the wording of the XII century uses within the meaning of the verb korchmstvovat (shallow retail). Voluntary korchemniki were paying taxes. 01070020
19. Inside the city walls on the open market squares trade occurred, the proceeds of which belonged to the city, individuals and guilds. Establishment and oversight of the urban markets were the most common and the most valuable of municipal privileges. Market police in medieval Europe warned cheats regulated production costs and provided natural price. Purchase of bread on the way to the market and reselling it at higher prices were considered punishable misdemeanors. Market needed police to oversee weights and measures, for bread and beer, to chase false scales and measures and oppose buying interest, warn falsification of goods. Guilty were punished with fines. 01070021
20. To enter into any commercial transaction in the Middle Ages certainly had to haggle. Sometimes the transaction involved witnesses, and when it came to significant amounts, the parties exchanged documents. 01070022
21. Membership in urban markets and fairs was the so-called court dusty feet when a traveler, bargaining itself the right product, entered into a dispute with the seller, often transitioned into a fight. These misdemeanors were punishable summarily and peremptorily. 01070023
22. City on the principles of self-regulated monopoly and had the right to issue laws for himself with the only condition that these laws do not interfere, and contributed to the common good. 01070024
23. Trade and craft agreements were strictly binding. English economist T. Rodgers (1823-1890), brought together a wealth of material on the economic history of England, said: "The Athenian and Roman laws were written in blood debt, and the rigor with which capital and interest recoveries, are well known." Therefore, slavery prevailed in ancient times in English history, Rogers explained the penalty for non-performance of a contract, offset (compensation) for unpaid debts. Ancient English law forced the debtor to pledge their land and respond to self for the debts [69, 107]. 01070025
24. Consequence of municipal government and religious influence urban communities became a manifestation of public charity, for charity - one of the great fruits of the Christian idea of who did not know paganism. In the XIII and XIV centuries. European cities appear in public hospitals, orphanages with almshouses. With the rapid development of trade and industry in the same period, public funds are raised capital public buildings: the town hall, living courtyards, covered markets, merchant assembly halls. Construction Inspectorate regulates the construction of buildings in the cities with the rules of fire safety. 01070026
25. Urban population respected creators. Charging Arnolfo di Lapo build a church, the people of Florence chastised him 01070027
26. "You utilize such a structure, grander and more beautiful which could not imagine a human art, you have to create it so that it corresponds to the heart that became extremely great, combining the soul of citizens, united in one mind" and- 01070028
27. Tangible impetus to the cause of public education, as well as the development of the entrepreneurial spirit, gave the Reformation, in 1532 was transformed the University of Basel, in 1560 founded the University of Strasbourg. 01070029
28. Russian cultural studies I.I. Dityatin (1847-1892), professor of Public Law at St. Petersburg and Tartu University, proved as a historical truth that development of Western European cities is the result of most of the urban population, activity, never dies, not even in time of strangled absolutism in XVIII century Applied to the history of Western European city in general I. Dityatin echoed A. Thierry (1795-1856), a specialist in the history of the Third Estate, uttered in relation to the communal movement in France: "everything was a matter of merchants and artisans who made up the population of cities" [18, 105]. 01070030
29. It is known that the French Revolution began in 1789 with the fact that the deputies of the National Assembly convened by Louis XVIII (1755-1824), the king refused to take pleasing taxes and rejected all attempts to pressure. Thus began the French parliament, representing the end of the XIII century all classes, and relying on the aristocrats and urban artisans shops, and clergy. In other words, for civil society, able to mobilize people, in addition to the state, to protect one or another of his interests. 01070031
30. Union organizations or individuals to maximize the effectiveness of trade and industrial activities contributed to eventually develop mutually beneficial trade and all sorts of exchange transactions is the connection elements within each country and between countries on the basis of international trade law. Principles of business associations in the cities included the provision of property and personal security, personal liberty and democracy (representative) government. 01070032
31. The main interest of a person in the West is wealth. Once a man is rich, it means that God loves him - dictates the Protestant ethic. Simultaneously in European legislation and Christianity were strengthening strictly human rights as such, independent of the state of origin. 01070033
32. Orthodox ethics, by contrast, the accumulation of wealth considered a sin, a man was ashamed to show openly his selfish interests. Even if he had such, he tried to hide them. 01070034
33. For Russia has been and remains a characteristic, because of significant, unavoidable and does not make a profit costs, massive enterprise, having the character of subsistence production, production for survival, not a market-oriented, but to customer value. This self-sufficient production within the household or other closed economic system (oicos) wore an informal nature, that is not subject to taxation or refuge from it (the shadow economy, illegal work). In modern conditions, examples legally unregistered businesses can serve not only private carting services, large-scale organized crime, criminal work, but quite respectable activities as export of crude oil or natural gas. 01070035
34. Given the obvious desire to centralize power in the different periods of Russian history, the impression that the main form of business arose from above, that is a result of decisions of the government. When this could not develop any strong group of self-governing local communities, defending the interests of civilian trade of industrial estates. In contrast, the total concentration of power and wealth, which was observed in certain periods of Russian history and accompanied by some despotism, servility and others fleeing from the country only hindered the development of domestic entrepreneurship. 01070036
35. But opposition to the harsh conditions, a lot of work on the development of land contributed to the development of the people is extremely important for business features (energy, stamina, patience, initiative). 01070037
36. In Russia, where six to eight months of the year the majority of the population was free from direct employment in agriculture, the bulk of the peasantry has long been engaged in a variety of homemade crafts with the sale of the surplus on the market that are no less important factor in the social division of labor, than the development of handicraft industry towns Western Europe [52, 485]. 01070038
1. Princely era history of the Russian people in terms of enterprise development can be divided into three periods: Period before territorial division, resistivity-Veche and the Golden Horde. 02010001
1. In doudelny period (period before territorial division, IX- XI centuries). Various Slavic tribes settled in the Central Russian plain, as trade routes took the Dnieper with its tributaries, the Western Bug, the Upper Volga and Dvina, lakes Ilmen, Ladoga and Peipus. Great waterways, shipping and location of river systems contributed to the development of extensive trade relations, which, in addition to purely economic interest, determined the completde economic way of life of ancient Russia. Own livelihoods of our ancestors provided in arable farming and crafts lined up all over the city round the world trade route, including actively in international trade the products of their own fisheries. Entrepreneurial interest was the basis for the formation of Kiev Rus. Through the merchants penetrated into Russia trends cultures of East and West with their literature, religion, art, architecture. 02010101
2. The first, covering the period of ancient Russia and the Russian principalities, called the period of spontaneous entrepreneurship, who had no legal clearance and have no regulatory impact of state [97, 4]. 02010102
3. Note that the trade route along the Volga controlled Finno-Ugric, Khazar and Turkic tribes. Rich plains of the south adjacent to the Black Sea, occupied nomads. Each tribe had its own prince. Chronicle mentions special reign in clearings Drevlyan, Dregovichy, Novgorod Slavs, Polotsk, Krivichy and other contemporaries testify that the Slavs did not suffer rulers and live in disagreement with each other; independence they love most and do not allow yourself to pay allegiance; they do not need supreme power, endeavor to resolve all together at the Chamber [7, 159, 165]. 02010103
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| 9. Seafaring of Russian entrepreneurs on Baltic Sea and White Sea (10th to 12th centuries) |
4. Intra-family relationships reflect the characteristics of clan control, separation of the tribe who had land as common property and tribal coffers. On the basis of agriculture as an economic life of ancient Slavic calendar says, which arose when the generic structure From the materials of archaeological sites is known about the population cultivation of rye, wheat, oats, millet, vetch, hemp, flax, cucumber, fruit trees. Developed and animal husbandry. Fishing, hunting, beekeeping were at that time supporting fisheries. Archeologists have found iron plowshares and coulter from plows naralniki and hoes, shovels shackles, sickles, scythes, millstones. Development of metallurgy, blacksmithing, exerted an active influence on agriculture, in conjunction with other industrial activities have led to the isolation of crafts as an independent branch. Branch handicrafts from agriculture to start separating the city from the village and the emergence of commodity production, not only works on the principle of self-sufficiency, but also on the market. Commodity economy has a direct impact on the development of exchange, trade as an independent branch of the economy, contributed to the emergence of merchants, moneylenders. Monetary circulation is constantly fueled by imports of eastern dirhams, then of Western pence. 02010105
1. Already in the VI-VII centuries. Volhynia and the Carpathians formed union of Slavic tribes headed by prince, one of the first manifestations of the state of the Eastern Slavs. 02010201
2. Chronicles of Kiev elevate him to the legendary era Kyi, who founded a half thousand years ago the capital Polyansky princes, sages and wise men, who laid the foundations of statehood - Polyansky confederacy of tribes. Polyansky princes and vigilantes have joined many tribes first within the Russian land with the main cities of Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl, and later expanded the borders of Russia to the White Sea and the Azov and the Black Sea and the Volga to the Tisza and Sana [20 33]. Prydniprovsky land amounted to the original nucleus of the Old Russian state pre-division period, which was defined as a public association of free people to enforce the peace and order of the presence of such essential features as:
3. The life of Slavic tribes implied specified attributes [22; 63]. 02010203
4. In the first half of VII century in Western Europe there Frankish state, whose ruler Charles Martel (688-741) blocks the path of the Arabs in Europe. The name of the other Frankish king Charlemagne (742-814) associated with the formation extensive European empire. 02010204
5. During this period the historical arena come Slavs, composing tribal populations of national education. In 862, Pope Nicholas I of Constantinople excommunicated Photius from the church, causing a separation of the eastern, Greek Church from the West, the Roman Catholic. Separation of church regarded as an intense pulse of Christ oust the European East, whereby, according to Rudolf Steiner, the Russian people in the broadest sense of European civilization became the people of Christ [7, 95]. 02010205
6. The social life of the Slavic tribes conceived in city-states, had combined the beginning: some - on the structure of fortresses, others - from the villages. Many of them (Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, Kiev, Smolensk) existed in Russia long before 862, chronicles the advent Varangian princes - Rurik and his brothers. No wonder the Vikings called ancient Rus Gardariki, ie country of towns. Oleg from Yaroslav to every city paid tribute to the Varangians 300 hryvnia, dividing the world and fear of looting. 02010206
7. Public order Slavs was not something arbitrary, created at the behest of the supreme power, and rested on the needs of human nature, in the state is quite detectable. These institutions, arising from the nature of man, and the establishment of property owned. Average value of the property was considered reasonable to all others; owner of moderate means were usually characterized by prudence and confidence. 02010207
8. Russian government initially evolved over a vast area, which was needed in defense spending long borders and new areas. 02010208
1. Large commercial businesses ancient Rus catered mainly to the external market. From time immemorial, Zamora exported grain, honey, wax, fur products marine fisheries, timber, hemp (cannabis product of primary processing - raw materials for the production of ropes, cables, etc.). Caravans North-South and East-West in need of protection and support, especially in the tribal hatred and competition. 02010301
2. The main organizers of the foreign trade of this period, according to the surviving texts of treaties with the Greeks 907, 911, 944, 957 and 971 years were Slavic princes Oleg, Igor, Olga and Svyatoslav and Boyar supreme know, the big landowners. "Jewish and Khazar element" - in the words of A.I. Solzhenitsyn. More than a century Jews participated intensively in the extensive trading activities Kiev beneficial to the treasury [98, 14-15]. 02010302
3. It is known that one of the tribes of the northern Slavs (Novgorod Slavs) call for Norman himself, and those trying to get rid of the hatred of the Slavs, join tribes. Princes surround themselves warriors, which flow into the most adventurous, bold, independent personality, highly value their honor, the first agrarian owners. It is precisely in Novgorod, the largest craft center of Northern Russia, with special force acts individually, economic beginning. Very dangerous people involved in foreign trade, have already gained their degree of independence. Combatants with whom princes shared part of the tribute collected or harvested, were peculiar and personal interest in sharing required for this mobility, the ability to stand up for themselves and protect the goods from plunder. 02010303
4. In the vast expanses of the Slavic lands were few people. Duke guard duty was filthy peasant, attract into their possession as much as possible of the peasants. 02010304
5. Military campaigns of squads of Oleg, Igor and Svyatoslav under the walls of Constantinople, the mastery of the great trade route from the Vikings to the Greeks and Saracens, connects the Baltic Sea with the Caspian and Black, and finally the adoption of Christianity created the prerequisites for establishing close economic, diplomatic and cultural ties between Kiev Rus and Byzantium, the Arab East and the Holy Roman Empire, is in an era of world centers of culture and business. Originally a major role in foreign trade played Varangian merchants arriving to Russia as part of their fellow warriors. But in this were actively involved also wealthy businessmen of Slavic origin. 02010305
6. Vikings in Novgorod and Kiev met socially close to them and needs the cooperation of class guests - merchants engaged in foreign trade, gostba. Business and trade in most of the population lived. Products for foreign trade extracted by taxation tribute hunting, animal capturing and agricultural tribes inhabiting Russia, organization princes and boyars, merchants, independent and crafts, tying special economic ties with neighboring populations. Securing trade merchants made warriors they carried weapons, participated in the militia, hired guards to protect the trade caravans. 02010306
7. Around the middle of the X century political influence extends to the Kiev Rus, Galicia and Volyn Rus, including its western suburbs. The value of these lands in the international exchange of goods determined by their position on the paths connecting Western Europe with Russia and its eastern neighbors, including China. On the Danube in Regensburg formed a special partnership ruzariev - merchants with Russia. 02010307
1. A number of cultural studies point in the Slavic character pre-division (pagan) period prevalence of epicurean start as one of the features sensual civilization. Enjoying prefer activities; underdeveloped therefore aligned with the entrepreneurial impulses of courage and bravado. In folk epic epicurean especially characteristic Prince Vladimir, feasting at the court which became a favorite subject of folk tales and songs. 02010401
2. But the annals transmit lesson dating back 980 th year, which led the good wives said that every woman, finding a wave and flax, creates his own hands of the latter case, resembling a ship, buy deyuschi. Items crafted home industry, there was no need to send for sale and exchange in Zamora, as they are marketable at the porch of his house. In ancient Russia was encouraged not only manufacture products for daily needs, but also those kinds of crafts that meet the aesthetic requirements of the wealthy population. Under the 986 th year of the Laurentian Chronicle reports that Jeremiah, who had a high priesthood, encouraged every way of making art. Development of handicraft production both in terms of basic necessities (linens, fabrics, wheels, carts, etc.), as well as luxury and arts, promised in the future to do full or part without the expensive purchases of these items from other nations. Artisans themselves and their secrets (Tricks) protected from encroachment, and deprivation of his artisan bribes rated as a criminal act, as adultery and perjury. 02010402
3. To fight the heathen Epicurean same Vladimir in 988 attracts Eastern Orthodoxy with its austerity, the ideals of chastity, sincerity and simplicity of Christian love, opposed manifestations of pagan immorality, cunning, deceit, cruelty. Christianity adopted as the state religion, spurred final folding state, encouraged ideological, spiritual, cultural consolidation settled on the East European Plain ancient Slavs. 02010403
4. Prince Vladimir Kiev Rus was mint its own gold and silver coins, which then gave way to the silver ingots - the hryvnia. 02010404
5. In Kiev, already in the reign of Olga (? -969) and Vladimir conducted extensive construction, the Kremlin was created with stone walls, palaces and monasteries. Kremlin became the center of the famous temple Desyatinny (998), huge in size and luxurious in interior decoration, in front of which was a square with statues. 02010405
6. During the amalgamation of numerous Slavic tribes in the great Kiev state in X. efforts builders entrepreneurs came to replace wooden monumental architecture of ancient Russia, as evidenced by the extant monuments of architecture. 02010406
7. Orthodox churches were not only a cult, but to a large extent and public buildings. In the ornate temples huge halls committed folk religious ceremonies and receptions princes associated with important events in the life of the state. Church because of their moral influence became custodians of private treasures. Business transactions made on faith, supported by church authority. Russian trade since ancient times was in close connection with the church. In cathedrals store important documents related to the field of foreign and domestic trade. Under the Charter of Vladimir Church became the guardian of weights and measures. Any business, commercial and private, was in charge of the Commercial Court of three representatives - from tysyatskogo zhitih or wealthy citizens and two wardens trading and living hundreds. 02010407
8. Russian merchants had to follow moral rules, which read:
1. In Kiev, in the era of Yaroslav special intensity reaches the church building as a form of entrepreneurship. Vladimir's son creates a new Kremlin to Hagia Sophia Irininskaya and St. George's Church in the center of the Kremlin, with new stone city walls and the Golden Gate. Centers of monumental architecture in the X-XI centuries. become Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Pskov and other cities doudelny period. Sharp contrast with the severe simplicity of exterior walls of Russian churches were the wealth and splendor of interior finishes: marble, gold, tiles, mosaics, frescoes. Preserved chronicles certificate front of the cathedral for the festivities of the palaces with Gridnitsa accommodates numerous retinue of Prince, city Kremlin citadel with monumental walls and gates topped Gate Church. 02010501
2. Construction companies in ancient warriors wore name, gang, cooperatives and served each specific princely court. Masters, architects and sculptors temples carvers were called cunning, inventors and owners of complex design secrets. Number of business cooperatives were small. Thus, in XI. there was only one gang - in Kiev. At the end of the XI century there was a second - in Pereyaslavl, the third - in Chernihiv, later several artisanal are working in Novgorod. 02010502
3. With Eastern Orthodoxy to Russia, the Rurikian empire penetrates Greek education, as well as legislation, writing, school. Receive special honor crafts: work in gold, icons, church murals. Church, masterfully constructed, covered with gold, with icons strewn with pearls, with all sorts Uzorochie, admired Orthodox Christians taking a new religion with faith healing. Although ancient Russia, according to VO Kliuchevskoi (1841 - 1911), was not at the height of Orthodoxy, but never ceased to strive to achieve common belief. 02010503
4. Every civilization, in essence, there is a desire to replace the dominance of imagination domination of reason. Vertices entrepreneurial achievements in this way become a plow and an ax, the Novgorod Kremlin and the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, chronicles and ancient monasteries, and home ikon Zhivonachalnoy Trinity domnitsy Slavs. 02010504
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| 10. Smithy. Front side of annales, 16th century |
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| 11. Clock casting in Tver. Front side of annales, 16th century |
1. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Kiev Rus by the level of culture in Europe was significant power. During this period there was "Russian Truth", in part - as a codification of customary instinctive expression of those views and folk psychology, which was in the old society, partly - the legal protection of persons and property. 02010603
2. Liberal view of property - opened me, me purchased - at the dawn of Russian history has been replaced by the rule of hereditary monopoly of land and water, the right to which the princes got in the offspring of Saint Vladimir, turning from paid guards in military- police rulers Russian lands. 02010604
3. "Russian Truth", which had not only legal, but also socio- economic importance and called VO Kliuchevsky Commercial Code capital reflected the civil society of the period. This document does not mention the death penalty; vendetta replaced monetary vira (fine). By the principle of financial compensation ("hryvnia for hryvnia" rather than "a tooth for a tooth") and provided for the payment of damages. 02010605
4. In the initial period of "Russian Truth" was formed kunnaya or UAH monetary system, which was treated as a purely Russian, and of foreign coins, mainly dirhams, dinars drachmas, rather than fur fur-bearing animals. Since the beginning of the XI century, Due to the depletion of oriental silver, the main foreign trade relations of Russia turning to the West, and the main imported goods again becomes a silver coin. It was believed that in this country no gold and silver exists. 02010606
5. In "Russian Truth" are the following items of monetary concepts: Livestock and Coons - to refer to money in general, the hryvnia, nogata, Kuna, cut, and veveritsa Vaxjo - to refer to units of payment. Name of money in general, cattle led to the conclusion that there is no time as money really appealed Livestock - Pets. Expressed quite plausible view that the era of "Russian Truth" is a relic of the term and is likely to ascend to the Germanic "scatta" and - money. 02010607
6. Hryvnia concept was used as the name of the unit of weight (Hryvnia gold, silver hryvnia) and as currency (Hryvnia kun). Ancient silver hryvnia was a direct ancestor of modern Russian pound and served as a generalization of the monetary systems of the various principalities. Hryvnia "Truth" contained 46.79 grams of pure silver. At one hryvnia Coons thought Nogat 20 or 25 kuna, or 50 cut. In all the lists of "Russian Truth" hryvnia equivalent by taxi one ox, or 10 calves, or 20 sheep. When Yaroslav the Wise started the construction of the St. George Church in Kiev (about 1051), he declared in the shambles that every doer (craftsman) gets for work on nogata day. For nogata in those days you could buy a sheep [81, 30-33]. 02010608
7. Earnings one day, as we see, it was possible to feed themselves with the family for a week. For almost four centuries, from Yaroslav the Wise to Dmitry Donskoy (1350-1389), a set of laws " Russian Truth" changed; remained unchanged, its structure consists of three sections: 1. Criminal laws. 2. Civil laws (On debt, inheritance, O slaves, O employees). 3. Proceedings. 02010609
8. Highest imposed surcharges should be imposed for damages or infringement of proprietary rights. If the property is not contrary to law and justice, the law and justice should govern and protect property. Here, for example, criminal article: 02010610
9. "Who spoilage tickle anyone cattle sale (fee) and 12 hryvnia hryvnia lesson in filth. 02010611
10. Who perervet rope superiority in sales 3 hryvnia, and the offended Hryvnia kuna. 02010612
11. Who pluck board or ruin it, shoveled Mezhuyev bortnuyu, stocks Mezhuyev tral blocked the fence Mezhuyev servants, felled tree Mezhnev sales 12 hryvnia. " 02010613
12. A similar magnitude of the penalty - 12 hryvnia - was imposed, for example, for a stolen slave. But for theft hook - 8 kuna rook - 60 kuna plow - strug, marine rook - 3 hryvnia: shipbuilding was developed industry ancient. 02010614
13. Theft of livestock more severely if the cattle stolen from a shed and stand than in the case of theft from a field or meadow. 02010615
14. The term "crime" unknown antiquity. Instead, it uses the expression: offense (this murder, and debt default), litter, misery, blazed. 02010616
15. Russian society is not aware of free labor and employment relations. As work in this period was cheap and capital is extremely rare, the latter demanded high interest rates. Usury (trade money loan) was a very ancient form of entrepreneurship in Russia. "Russian Truth" esteemed legal interest on 10 kuna on the hryvnia. Since 25 kuna were hryvnia, the legal interest was 40 per 100. With interest were given not only money, but copper instruct prisype in corn, cattle in the offspring [59, 42-43]. 02010617
16. The loan was provided by the debtor's personal freedom. In case of failure, he became a slave bonded lender. In connection with this mass of free farmers was attached to the land as serfs or purchase. 02010618
17. Responsibility for the loss of foreign merchant or commodity money varies depending on whether there was such misery from God or the fault of the merchant. Who took, say, goods and money and lost their credit due to shipwreck enemies attack or fire, was not subject to the usual methods for the time penalty - for sale into slavery or violence on the part of creditors, but as a victim in the will of God was exempt from liability. 02010619
18. Slave in "Russian Truth" worshiped:
19. Who undertook to work for another of the salary portion or bread, he was revered not as a slave, and purchased, or employee. Kupa - grain, livestock, money borrowed. Zakupnichestvo arise from loan agreements as a result of private law, followed by the possibility of converting to purchase zakladnikov servant, slave, chelyadintsa. 02010621
20. When the peasant lost cattle, the former owner was made landless and he had no choice but to go to purchase either slaves. 02010622
21. However, the contempt for physical labor of the people do not exist: it seemed to be incompatible with the dignity of a free man firstborn. 02010623
22. "Russian Truth" makes no mention of land ownership: land belonged to the community and then had no exchange value, and therefore not subject to sale and exchange. But the law protects every possession, every land grab space on which were placed signs. 02010624
23. Text "Russian Truth", undergoing some changes in accordance with the further socio-economic development of lands and principalities, included in the legal collections XIII-XV centuries. (in the Pilot, "Meryl Righteous", etc.). 02010625
1. Resistivity-Veche period (XII-XIII cc.) or principalities era - this time the collapse of the Kiev state, reached in XI. peak of its power. After Vladimir Monomakh imperial unification of the tribes and the land became mechanical, non-economic, and sometimes forced. 02020001
1. The struggle for the independence of Veliky Novgorod was completed by the middle of the XII century education Novgorod republic with boyars' veche government-earth possesses colonies valuable fish farms and forests. Novgorod is located on a convenient waterway exit from the lake Ilmen Volkhov, and at the junction with the land roads to the west and east, could control the trade routes from the Baltic Sea to Russia and the East. 02020101
2. Significant role in the decay of the Kiev state and strengthening of the Vladimir- Suzdal principality played establishment of a direct path from Byzantium to Genoa, Venice and the southern ports of France on the Mediterranean Sea. Route from the Vikings to the Greeks, who owned Kiev lost its former importance. There is a new and very important trade route, which runs from the eastern civilizations, the Caucasus and Central Asia, the territory of Vladimir-Suzdal principality, through Novgorod and other centers of Russia in the Baltic and Scandinavian countries. Vladimir-Suzdal principality held in their hands the trade node communications from the East to all corners of Russia and further west. 02020102
1. Strengthened old and new urban centers of the city - the kings, shopping, famous Europe Mr. Novgorod and Pskov, the capital of the principality - Vladimir growing Polotsk, Vitebsk, Vladimir - Volynskii, Galich, Rostov, Moscow, Smolensk and Chernigov ancient. Continuing rivalry with Constantinople and Kiev. In cities formed veche management with the right of elected representatives to address the major issues and trade legislation. 02020201
2. Income from their estates princes received, like other major private owners. But this income princes did not distinguish from the income received by them from the population as authorities - in the form of fees, direct and indirect taxes (taxes). Taxes payable on products in high demand on the European market (honey, fur, grain, Coons). In addition to direct fees, and chronicles mention a popular service like tinker - the obligation to deliver the prince of the population, officials and messengers carts with conductors or rowers. 02020202
3. Subordinate his territory (and they have changed over time and were given the names of lands, principalities, townships, counties, paternal) Prince rode to produce ships and collecting tribute. Similar kind collection called Polyudov, he was accompanied by gifts and honors. From this custom was avital welcome with bread and salt. The term people in ancient Russia in one of its meanings was synonymous with the state [52 435]. Hence polyude could have value as a trip to the state with public affairs and as the earliest, embryonic form of manifestation of the supreme ownership of the land. 02020203
4. Gift or honors gradually transformed from a voluntary offering farmers communes in the mandatory collection of a certain size. Farmers themselves in the harsh climate and unstable harvests had only the necessary minimum of the total social product. Lifestyle of the population of the historic core was formed in Russia for centuries as a process survival. 02020204
5. Vladimir Monomakh, Grand Prince of Kiev in 1113 and the most prominent businessman resistivity-veche period in his "Instructions" called sons not only to strengthen the unity of the Russian land, tame arbitrariness moneylenders and control belonged to the Grand Duke trade route from the Vikings to the Greeks, but also attached great importance to concerns about industry, adopting hunting and fishing under the administration of justice. 02020205
6. "Instructions" Monomakh divided into four parts: the relationship between man and God, relations between government and citizens, relation of man to himself and his home, a person's relations towards other people. 02020206
7. Turning from the creation to the creator, historians note that Vladimir Monomakh always tried to subordinate personal passions to the ideas of justice, who developed the then society. He did not try to take the throne until Kiev morally compelled him to come to Kiev and to establish peace after the destruction and plunder. In the preceding reign trade and monopoly managed to seize Jews moneylenders - Busting citizens exorbitant because the then scarcity of money. Vladimir sought to define the limits of growth, but considered indecent punishment moneylenders admitted former princes [79, 373]. Monomakh justice established extortion and arbitrary moneylenders put an end to. 02020207
8. Agreements with the princes of the people, and the princes with paramilitary princely retinue determined resistance regulations and decisions of the Chambers of military service and the awards for it. Contracts between the princes concerned problems of accepting the state of or war or peace, as well as conducting community master's coffers. 02020208
9. Princes as big farmers and landowners who possessed intact areas cultivated craft work among people, to some extent dependent on them. Wages made in cash and in kind - reward canvases, Byzantine fabrics. 02020209
1. The relief of the Caucus of Veliky Novgorod was historically the most significant, because it meant the beginning of the democratic- national, as opposed to the legal aristocratic life perceived in Kiev from Byzantium and the West. Candlelight participants were three free estates: boyars, wealthy merchants and black people - artisans, merchants, farmers. In the first half of the XII century Novgorod caucus veche estates get one after the other all their rights, including the right to elect the prince, performing the role of an impartial conciliator of parties. For princes it was a great test. In the XII century, Novgorod governed by about 30 rulers [7; 217]. Prince had to rule the city according to the established custom (on duty). Custom orders included:
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12. Russian principalities in the turn of 1200 and 1300 years:
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2. Availability free communities for urban population was the main prerequisite for the development of Western European cities, so also characteristic of veche period in pre-Mongol Russia. Due to the absence of the feudal system in Russia rural and urban populations were equally free. Near towns, appeared Posadas (permanent settlements outside the city) and settlements (suburbs) of agricultural and commercial market people. 02020303
3. At the turn of the XI - XII centuries in the Republic of Novgorod, a system of patrimonial land tenure appears and private ownership of land where before was Veche corporate ownership. The most common form of land ownership in this period was the system where the largest feudal barony ruled on various grounds such as: the prince, monastic, Boyar, birth, bought, bestowed. Supreme owner of all land was considered the feudal prince of the principality, which was confirmed already in the princes decree of Lyubech Congress (1097): each principal holding his paternal vote. The right of free owner disposal in land ownership (sell, exchange, mortgage, give, bequeath) was formulated by a number of attributes. Urban knights' manor were converted into processing centers of agricultural and commercial products estates, sometimes located at a considerable distance from Novgorod. Condition for export of patrimonial products in foreign markets was a counter flow of imports, primarily in the form of craft materials, a reason why urban knights manors were converted into centers of various handicraft production. 02020304
4. Property right of peasants on their home, livestock and land was only asserted by universal custom, rather than law. 02020305
5. Entrepreneur-colonists, pioneer settlers from Veliky Novgorod, laid the foundation of many cities in the Urals, in the Kama, in Pomerania, guided, as a rule by direct experience, origin of which was the mere spiritually clean atmosphere for life - along the rivers. 02020306
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| 13. Novgorod. Popular prints. The first half of the XVIII century |
6. Successful industrial colonization in the XII century mainly on the Vyatka River contributed to the development of the ore base in the Urals, fisheries and marine animal fur, valuable fish species, the development of salt springs Great Perm. Vyatka Nikulitse were built in 1174, Kotelnich in 1181 in the XIII century Novgorod entrepreneurial energy is directed to the north, where there are great Ustiug (1218), Vologda (1264), Cole (1264) and finally Holmogory (1353). Development of new lands were engaged in a bold industrialist-daring trader who lived not only in the interests of reality, but also the development of the sciences, arts and architecture Veliky Novgorod. 02020308
7. In the XII century, construction cooperatives continued to exist and to build churches in the largest, the capital cities of Kiev, Vladimir, Polotsk, Smolensk, Galich. 02020309
8. After the disintegration of Kiev Rus at the end of the XII century in Novgorod were built small temples showing utmost simplicity and strained cuboidal masses in which there is a huge force. Novgorod masters second half of XII - beginning of XIII century church buildings erected on the orders of the boyars, church hierarchs and only occasionally by Prince. Increased mass and standardization in this kind of business, increasing productivity, without compromising the quality of construction and refinement of architectural forms. 02020310
9. In free Novgorod Russia opened worldwide. Trade visitors flowed here from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, and the commerce of Novgorod people floated down the rivers to the south, southeast and reached peoples who lived around the Black and Caspian seas, in the Volga, in the Baltic. Even Icelandic sagas filled with tales of great wealth and power Holmgrada [7, 215.]. Of Russian lands in Novgorod flowed trade items: fruit of farming, hunting, fishing, beekeeping, handicrafts. 02020311
10. Novgorod, the Great as an entrepreneurial center had a vast territory from Sumy tenements in the White Sea to the watershed of the Western Dvina and Ilmeny rivers. Lake Ilmen is known to play a very important role in the great waterway from northwestern to southeastern Europe (from the Vikings to the Greeks and Saracens). Holding this way, the initial domestic trade of Novgorod, keeping this route gained the best profit mainly in southern Russia. Novgorod merchants (think only of epic Sadko) scattered in different cities of Chernigov to Volyn, Kiev had a special church of St. Michael, known as the shrine of Novgorod. One of the most desirable items from the Novgorod barter was furs: sable, ermine, foxes, black coons and fish teeth. On the part of southern Russia trade article was primarily bread, without which import from outside the barren earth of Novgorod could not exist. From Byzantium to the north went gold, wine, vegetables and tissues, and from Europe through the Baltic Sea cloth, wine, spices, jewels. For them it was necessary to provide "Goths" and "Germans" and the northern sea products: blubber, ivory, furs, salt, and wax. Slavic Veliky Novgorod meant peaceful trade and industrialized European interpreter between the Hanseatic League and the eastern foreigners, for the glorious settlers of Novgorod, for example, wealthy guests Stroganoff, opened the gates too wide from Urals to Siberia in Asia [60, 79], putting on the tracks gostby bargainings, their graveyards, suburbs, ranks of cities. 02020312
11. The basis of this circular bargaining served northern fishing, mining, Boyar colonization of Pomerania (so was called collectively the White Sea coast and valleys of rivers flowing into the White Sea). Novgorod settled in the vast spaces, letting the northern river shores of the White Sea to the Urals its entrepreneurial energy, boldness, courage and capital. By far the sea shores - Terek, Pomeranian, Obonezhie - penetrated well kitted out and equipped with everything necessary for a party of colonists founding the new fisheries or acquisition encampments for sea fishing. At convenient bays occurred knights fiefdoms, fishing villages with Russian population. Capitalist ruled was the homestead of Veliky Novgorod and was only interested in that distant land of his demesne in time and in sufficient quantity sent goods going to Novgorod markets. Settlements wore completely industrial character. North quickly became vital to Novgorod, supplying him with not only furs, salt, fish, freshwater pearls, but also bog iron ore in bloom (bloom - fresh lump of cast iron digested going under the huge water, bloomery hammer for the cake, and forging stripe processing and other hardware). 02020313
12. Slavic-Russian movement in the notheast was free and immediate. Entrepreneurial spirit was our ancestral property of the northern tribes. Novgorod Slavs formed an alliance with the Finnish tribes - Chudy, by the entire, Merey, Ziryanov and Perm. 02020314
1. In the views of the medieval Arab geographers northern areas of the European part of Russia were ancient sea of darkness, the kingdom of snow, ice and eternal darkness, where, according to legend, Alexander the Great drove Lukomorie peoples, in the mountains, setting the pommel sea. Throughout the East of the country famous for fur gloom. Zobeida itself, beloved wife of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid (766-809 or 763), introduced the custom of wearing fur, lined with sable gloom of the country of mist 02020401
2. Arab travelers in XII. left description of ancient skis, one of the main means of transportation in the North: 02020402
3. "The road to them is on the ground, on which the snow never melts, and people make boards for the legs and shave them. And front end of such boards is raised above the ground, in the middle of the board they place a foot hole for walking with it, a strong leather straps are used to tie it to the legs. Skiing is inciting people of north to use sable skin under the skies, not knowing that this sable - fur is welcome to kings, queens and patriarchs. But if this were only fiction, no one would go there " - says Arab geographer and shows that there penetrate only the rich merchants, who can affort for one hundred or so drawers of carts loaded with edible food, beverages and wood. Guides in this land are the dogs. Merchant feeds dogs before people. 02020403
4. The main item for sale on the East and West was furs - sable, ermine, ferrets, weasels, martens, foxes, squirrels, beavers, rabbits and goats. Fur was imported in Isfahan, Istanbul, Venice, Hamburg, London, Paris. In the "Romance of Troy" poet of XII century Benoit de Sainte-Mora described the French court lady outfit: 02020404
5. "Out of the blue purple, streaked with gold, rich and perfectly stitched was her tunic trimmed with ermine and sable mantle of cloth from overseas, and these clothes cost seven measures of pure gold." 02020405
6. Chambers of the great Chinese Kublai Khan, according to Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324), were covered fur - king's ermine and sable. Good sable fur coat for men was worth two thousand Byzantium (Byzantium - Byzantine coin of pure gold), and lighter - a thousand. In India, for ermine skins was paid a thousand dinars (one dinar contained 4.25 grams of gold). 02020406
7. The fur trade in the East was carried out in this period on two ways. Overland route led to Yaik continuing through Ustyurt in Khorezm. Another way to go down, along the river Volga and through the courts of Bulgarian Volga to Bulgars. Trade routes converged to the Bulgar capital city located near the confluence of the Volga and Kama. It was in this bustling city, one of the most important centers in the Great Volga Way, Arab merchants provided basic information about ancient times. From the mouth of the Volga was a sea route along the western shore of the Caspian Sea and the city of Khorasan, Tabaristan. Russian merchants with their wares sometimes reached Baghdad itself. Our ancestors passed trade characteristic for the prestige classes of Muslim world. Acquisition - a religious duty for every Muslim - one of the precepts of God's messenger Muhammed (ok. 570 -632). - Trade is the most excellent means of living and brings good fortune if you follow piety and the principle of mutual benefit, and not extortion and hostility. Clades Arab coins are found from VII - IX centuries literally strewn on the island of Gotland, the eastern and southern shores of the Baltic Sea. 02020407
8. In the writings of the eastern writers are repeatedly encountered allegations that the Russians are skillful traders, that for furs were paid usually silver: coins, precious utensils, knives. 02020408
9. In most Russian settlements were developed such crafts as spinning, weaving, pottery, iron and steel production. In the "Lay" swords Haraluzhnye mentioned that Roman soldiers were armed Mstislavovitch. These swords or metal for them were made in the vicinity of the village of Volyn Haralug, the largest center of ferrous metallurgy of the Scythian period to the Middle Ages. 02020409
10. Grain from the middle of XIII century our ancestors milled in windmills. 02020410
1. At the beginning of XII c. was born the genre of travel accounts, of some Russian people traveling to the Middle East, the Caucasus, to Europe, Central Asia, the Caspian Sea and the Urals. First listed in the Chronicle, became famous journey of Princess Olga to Constantinople (957). At the same period traveled extensively rhetorician and physician of Grand Prince Vladimir I John Polotsk to study different religions. Authors of the period of XI -XIII centuries are mostly church leaders, igumens Daniel and Anthony, but the manuscript of Metropolitan of Kiev John (XI cent.) indicates that also Russian merchants traveled on business to the pogany areas. This kind of travels proved risky: "In a voyage our ship was attacked by Catalan robbers who jumped on the ship as wild beasts. Dissected our Captain into pieces and thrown into the sea. Took all my possessions but me, poorly clothed in homespun coat, left alive" [39, 314]. 02020501
2. Apostle Andrew told us the chronicle evidence about people who lived in Novgorod, about their customs, and he truly marveled at them: "I saw wooden bath, which they boost hot, then undress naked, shed on sour kvass, and take young twigs and beat themselves until barely alive. Then pour cool water on themselves and get revived and alive. This they are doing all the days, nobody is tormenting them, they torture but themselves. And as a matter, they are just washing themselves, not tormenting. [39; 201]. 02020502
1. Trade of European cities with Novgorod and other cities of medieval Russia was accomplished by Hanseatic League, an international merchant guild, which is composed of up to 150 Nordic cities (Pomeranian, Vendian, Prussian, Westphalian, Dutch, Livonian). Hansa was not merchants' association but union of free trading cities, whose representatives gathered at the Diet and decided there together all the important questions related to their trade with the inhabitants of the countries located in the North and Baltic Seas. Field activities of Hansa were with England, Flanders and Brabant, the Scandinavian states, Novgorod, Pskov and northwestern Russian city centers and principalities - Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, Vladimir. 02020601
2. Hansa was not an economic union, but political and military alliance (for protection of trade expeditions, trading posts, and monopoly privileges, commercial law and modes, etc.) with a warehouse in Bergen and the Treasury in Visby. Hanseatic merchants traded products in Scandinavia, all coastal lands of the Baltic Sea and Muscovy, having a monopoly on intermediary trade between Europe and Novgorod. Major cities of the Union were Lübeck, Cologne, Brunswick and Danzig, and the main factories were in Novgorod, London, Bruges and Bergen. An idea of the wealth of Hansa can be obtained regarding the numerous and expensive churches, say, in the city of Lübeck. 02020602
3. With regard to the dating of trade relations of Novgorod and its suburbs - Pskov and Staraya Rus with European cities, they originated from the XI century, and at the end of the XII century and from that time appears the first treaty between Novgorod and the Germans, who were importing to Novgorod malt, flour, bread, dried fruit, herring and of the red goods: cloth, damask matter, tanned skin, of haberdashery: needles, beads, parchment, gloves, scallops, wine and beer [81, 463]. By this time the true charter of Emperor Frederick I Lubeck (1188) permitting free trade in this city for Russian, Goths, Normans and Eastern entrepreneurs. In the history of Novgorod relations with the Germans until the end of the XIV century, at least ten contracts are known, three of which made Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, the father of Alexander Nevsky. 02020603
4. In Novgorod in XII. as community centers arise victuals neighborhood: Gothic courtyard - factory Swedish and Dutch merchants, which included accommodation, hotels, barns for goods, a stone observation tower, the church of St. Olaf and the German court - a factory of Hanseatic merchants in the same composition of buildings, with the addition of the cemetery [20 145]. 02020604
5. Later active role in trade with Novgorod and other northwestern regions of Russia occupy Livonian cities on the Baltic Sea - Dorpat, Riga and Revel. In Novgorod, apparently, less waste of effort and money on war was used than on the restless south, it actively developed crafts, growing trade with neighbors near and far, continuing was the process of wealth creation and development of new territories. 02020605
6. Do not exaggerate the active character of Russian trade with the Arab East and Western Europe. Not being in the proper sense of the word a maritime republic Novgorod could hardly conduct extensive trade by sea, although convoys of Novgorod since the time of the epic Sadko were equipped on their own capital, own heads and hands. Prominent role in international trade and the road acquired from Vladimir - Volyn the Western Bug, further Lithuania or in Northern Poland, Magdeburg and the Baltic Hanseatic cities. In the XII century Carpathian salt was sold in Poland. Of Galicia, Volyn Rus took out the bread, wax, furs, crafts, which strengthened ties with the West Slavic culture. 02020606
1. Trade was conducted mostly by cooperatives - the companies that owned a common courtyard - a warehouse, gridnitsy - ample ward for meetings. Companies had large scales to check the goods and small - weighing cash bars. Artel court was headed by elected judge. Entry into the trading community was conditioned by 50 hryvnia mandatory contribution and donation to the temple 30 hryvnia. With that money you could buy a cow herd of 80 head. 02020701
2. In the context of XI-XII centuries merchants used mainly waterways. This necessitated a considerable number of ships and boats of various caliber and type, served not only trade, but also for military purposes. In Byzantine campaigns involving several thousand ships, tanned in Russia qualified carpenters, shipbuilders. Princes as big businessmen and landowners cultivated craft work. Craftsmen, carpenters were producing war materials such as wooden visors, plank armors, bows. 02020702
3. It is known that inhabitants of Novgorod, not without a smile, are called carpenters. In the city there was the end of the carpenters, whose residents performed the construction of churches and town improvement (paving streets and market-place, the construction and repair of bridges, repair of fences and urban shrines, etc.). 02020703
4. Trade linked Novgorod with close ties to all the Rus and promoted the unification of the principalities. Contract with neighbors allowed to keep peace in the long term. 02020704
5. Development of foreign trade activity partly restrained attitude of the fathers of the Russian Orthodox Church to the Western European (Catholic) civilization. Looks of ancient dogmatists were composed under the influence of Byzantine polemical writings and passed into popular consideration. 02020705
6. Theodosius of the Caves, one of the founders of Kiev-Pechersk monastery, of which he was abbot from 1062 to 1074, in his letter to Izyaslav Yaroslavovich (1024-1078), Grand Prince of Kiev, and one of the authors of "Pravda of Yaroslav", explains it: 02020706
7. "Latin faith should beware not to keep their customs, communions they did not take, and do not listen to what they said, because they err in faith and unclean living... as Christians can not give their daughters in marriage to them, nor take their daughters as wives, not fraternize with them, nor kumitsya not kiss them, and not eat with them and drink from the same dish" [51, 13]. 02020707
8. Extremely sharp condemnation of the Latin West, borrowed from Byzantine sources spirited intolerance promoted isolation, alienation, the convert Russia from the European Christian nations. 02020708
9. Aversion to the lives of others accompanied the consecration of national customs and habits coming from paganism and alien to Christianity. Alreadh in the church charter of Yaroslav it was established: Whoever cuts hairs or beard, must pay to the Metropolitan - 12 hryvnia, and accept the prince's punishment. 02020709
10. In Russia in terms of the specific fragmentation (city and surrounding rural districts) local and inter-regional markets were formed. In the central Russian lands one after the other new towns: Suzdal (1023), Vladimir (1116), Torzhok (1139), Mikulin (1144), Tver (1195), Rzhev, Ostashkov and Zubtsev - in the beginning of the XIII century Ancient cities near Moscow (Dmitrov, Kolomna), as well as Moscow itself, appeared in the period from 1147 to the beginning of the second half of the XIII century. Between 1212 and 1223 were founded Kostroma and Nizhny Novgorod. 02020710
11. In the markets of ancient Russian cities, along with professional merchants, numerous small traders and craftsmen are selling pottery, wooden barrels, cloth, leather shoes, knives, axes, door locks, glass products. The urban market exchange involving also residents of ancient villages with the products of agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry industries, rural crafts, especially the blacksmith and wheelmakers. In the markets of their products sold and the monastic artisans. 02020711
12. Leading articles on Russian exports remained furs, leather, wax, honey, cloth, in exchange for which the importation of precious non-ferrous metals, cloth, silk, wine, tropical fruits and spices. 02020712
13. Specific discord and strife between Ruric not conducive to the development of commercial and industrial population, but to a certain extent spared big cities, emptying mainly villages and hamlets. In the period 1155-1237 only two decades Russia was certainly calm [90, 390]. In 1169 the troops of Andrew Bogolyubski was conquered and sacked Kiev. 02020713
14. Another case that specific quarrels between princes were taken by people without involvement into the matter, not taking to heart their accounts with each other. The aim of these quarrels was live goods in the slave trade, so the Russian people did not honor these quarrels in any of their songs, legends or bylina. Remained almost the only bitter row: Novgorod sold to people of Suzdal sheep three times cheaper. 02020714
15. Before the onslaught of the Golden Horde politically fragmented Rus overtook the famine years, the bill of these indicates that for each 11 years there was one year of famine. By 1230 the chronicler draws this picture: "What can I say to utter about this terrible year, when it was sent to us as God's punishment! Ordinary living people slaughtered and ate others; eating horsemeat, dogmeat, cats, moss, grass snakes, pine bark, leaf, who invented that. And some evil people began to burn good people at home, sensing somewhere rye, and plundered their possessions. Brother, father son, mother daughter did not want to break off a piece of bread; there was no mercy between us, but there was sorrow and grief. Fathers and mothers sold children into slavery for bread" [81; 464-466]. 02020715
16. Result of a struggle between two principles - zemsky (veche) and princely - was the fall of the autonomy of cities, most tragically manifested itself in the subsequent history of Novgorod and Pskov. 02020716
17. It seems to be a correct conclusion about the role of democracy in Novgorod, which reduces to the fact that in this land of "Russian people thought of freedom, loved her strongly and passionately, long managed to protect her, but not before thought of the need for strict order to rule of law, to protect it at the face of strict forms of law and the court, in a word, to respect human dignity in itself" [89, 11]. 02020717
1. Third period - the reign of the Golden Horde or the Mongol-Tatar yoke - is measured from the middle of the XIII century until 1480, the full release of the Russian lands from paying tribute to the Horde and the final internal unification of Russian lands. 02030001
2. This period preceded the Crusades (1096-1270) to the Middle East, the looting of Constantinople (1204) and the fall of the Byzantine Empire, resulting in a trade route from the Vikings to the Greeks lost its meaning. Economic losses have contributed to the rise of a number of Kiev principalities of Central Russia, including Moscow. Interests separate principalities lost their unity. 02030002
1. Characteristic evaluation of collision of two civilizations - agricultural, settled and nomadic, horse camp - was expressed so "By breaking the fractured Rus with rapid onslaught, they repopulate it like locusts, sucking juices of still economically poor country" [89, 15]. 02030101
2. In the spring of 1389, Metropolitan Pimen with Protopopov, Archdeacon, monks and servants set out on a voyage to Constantinople. When they floated down the river Don, terrible desolation was seen everywhere, and on the shores nothing was visible: no towns or villages. "And once in ancient times there were beautiful city and a very well appointed place - Metropolitan Pimen went to Constantinople to the patriarch for the third time - now everything is ruined and not populated. Never do you see a person, only desolation and a manifold of beasts. Great desolation" [39 287]. 02030102
1. Using the time of pogrom in northeastern and southern lands Batu pope in 1240 declared a crusade on the Russian land. Attempt to seize the northern lands of Russia undertook during this period, German, Swedish and Danish feudal lords. Since XIII century Russia was in the grip of the two fronts. Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) defeated Swedish and German knights and made for more than 250 years Pskov restrain their onslaught on the east. 02030201
2. In the socio-economic, and cultural respects, this period of limited freedom was most unfavorable. It meant suspending of lively trading activity in Kiev Rus. Trade settlements, especially Jewish, survived only in Volhynia and Galicia. 02030202
3. Russia not only lost its trading positions in the areas of the Black Sea, Crimea, Northern Caucasus, Galicia, the Volga region, Central Asia, but also completely lost four centuries of free institutions, which were used by Slavic society before the outbreak of the terrible hurricane. 02030203
4. One of the worst effects of predation and anarchy was the sharp weakening of Russian cities. Invaders from the East, generally hostile cities, not only destroy them, but also led into captivity skilled urban artisans. Extermination and divestment as craft masters undermined the very foundation of material culture in the archaeological inventory disappeared many items common to the pre-Mongol era. 02030204
5. In the difficult years of the Mongol yoke just north of Old Russia - new urban-land-Pskov - retained its independence and culture. Shrewd politician and an outstanding commander, Prince Alexander Nevsky was able to protect from attack Novgorod khans of the Golden Horde and subjected to cruel defeat the Swedish and German Knights of the Sword in Battles along the banks of the Neva (1240) and at Lake Peipus (1242). 02030205
6. Veliky Novgorod in this era became the center of Russian business, the foundation of which were: exploitation of the richest wood crafts of Northern Russia, purchase of raw materials in the neighboring principalities for export to the Hanseatic cities and trade along the Volga. Novgorod merchants already in 1265 had clerks and permanent shops in the capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai, where they sold furs, lead, tin, fabric, cloth, locksmithing, walrus tusks. Horde brought bread, spices, dried fruits, herbs, silk and satin fabrics, gems, jewelry, pearls, beads [97, 34]. 02030206
7. But also in these zones and cities, which the destruction did not reach, large sums were required as payments to Orda, and to the expenses of the Grand Duke of Moscow and of the Metropolitan. 02030207
1. Conquerors demanded tribute request, food, drink, gifts, honor, pochestie, funeral, bows, table, entry, tramsport, fares, duties, in a word: took what they could and when they could. Feudal lords began to depend not on the Chambers and Horde. Prince Yury Dolgoruky (?-1157) to elect his residence to Moscow, where Candlelight never was. Avaricious conquerors, trying to drain strength of the Russian people by inciting princely in fighting, announced that the title of Grand Duke receives the ruler who gives the largest remuneration. 02030301
2. By the beginning of the XIV century the economic arena extends and Moscow principality becomes the new unification center of Russian lands. The statement of NM Karamzin that Moscow owes its greatness to the khans, is only partly true. Moscow princes realized the importance of unifying the title and gave the Horde really larger tribute at the same time overcoming the patrimonial share and separatism and putting on their banner the idea of a single nation-state and the liberation from the yoke of the Golden Horde. Old center Horde of Russia - Vladimir - after the capture of the trade route from the east gradually gives way to Moscow, where location at the intersection of trade and river routes connects Russian land economically. As the anchor of salvation from the yoke of external and the internal disorder becomes Moscow idea of autocracy. During the rule of Dmitry Donskoy Moscow Kremlin was first enclosed by stone walls, and after the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), when the son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri Zvenigorod was the ruler, extensive construction activity occurred. 02030302
3. From olden times monastries had been gathering places for people in Russia, monastries also fulfilled the function of banks. Characteristically, in the XIV century in clothes for priests and monks it was strictly forbidden to use outlandish items. In the monastery workshops Russian artisans used many herbs and plants in dyeing fabrics. Yellow color was obtained from chamomile, blue from cornflowers and nettle infusion attached to tissues green color. 02030303
4. The conquerors did not interfere in the religious life of the people, but showed a certain tolerance, and the collection of tribute was given to Russian princes. Among the latter there was a scope for fighting: to oust the neighbor to get the collecting permission of the Horde. 02030304
5. But the consequences of the invasion of the Golden Horde, and two centuries of slavery were not lost to Russian culture. Invasion, for example, boldly vintage fishing in manufacturing glazes, which were made of mosaic patterns, elegant jewelry, art glass. AS Pushkin (1799-1837) insightfully and accurately said: "Russia was defined by the high destiny... Her vast plains absorbed the Mongols and halted their advance at the very edge of Europe, the barbarians did not dare to leave behind their back the enslaved Russia and return to their steppes east. The resulting enlightenment was rescued ravaged and expiring Russia." In a footnote to these words Pushkin remarked, "but Europe in relation to Russia has always been as ignorant as they are ungrateful." Conquerors do not act as the Moors: they gave Russia nor algebra, nor Aristotle [59, 55]. 02030305
6. Russian philosopher and engineer PA Florensky time of Muscovite Russia called time St. Sergius of Radonezhk and tied it to one of the greatest cultural disasters - the end of the Byzantine Empire. Ancient Russia kindles the flame of its culture directly from the sacred fire of the dying Byzantine, and Russian people, gaining statehood gets historical right to independence. Kulikovo Field was the awakening of Russia as a historic nation. In the second half of the XIV century clearly delineated economic revival of the Russian lands, and Muscovy in XV. interpreted by historians as a "huge feudal lords association, especially in view of favorable conditions has absorbed all the other " [55, Part 1, 23]. After the fall of Constantinople (1453) and the marriage of Ivan III (1440-1505), the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Palaeologus (1472) in the Russian state began to assert the idea of transferring the church-political significance of Constantinople to Moscow and the Moscow Grand Prince the inheritance rights and the power of the Byzantine emperors. 02030306
7. Let us listen still to another view, expressed in the 1871 culture expert and writer N.I. Khlebnikov (1840-1880): "Tatar yoke was only the external reason that forced society to look at itself. If there were no Tatars, Lithuanians and Poles, when they could get connected, could have successfully played the role of Tatars in Russian history, ie force quit the system of division and introduce the unification. The disorder of the division system as a whole could be destroyed only by autocracy; and in turn, the extremes of this trend could only be weakened by the Slavic tribes living in need of freedom" [90, 402-404]. Could, but did not weaken. 02030307
8. Moscow principality evolved through extensive territorial growth. Ivan Kalita (? - 1340), Dark Basil II (1415-1462) consistently attached to Moscow Meschera, Tarusa, Moore, Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal, Kama, northern Ural region, Tver, Vyatka, Perm. Moscow made an end to the general national lack of unity. 02030308
9. Particularly intense in this period developed the practice of usury and servitude connected to it, although the charging of interest in pre-Petrine was considered reprehensible and inconsistent with the standards of orthodox morality. 02030309
10. A Venician merchant losaph Barbaro, who served in Russia in 1436-1452, was amazed about the scale of trade, abundance and cheapness of goods. "The abundance of bread and meat, - he wrote - you can imagine on how the meat was sold, because it did not happen on weight but at the ease of eye... In winter, pigs, cows and other cattle was dumped in ragged skins from carcasses. Solid as a rock, they were put on their feet and in such numbers that if anyone wanted to buy one day 200 carcasses, he could have got them" [70, 5]. 02030310
11. Russia's foreign trade developed actively, dramatically increased the value of the trade route through the Baltic Sea. Vasily III (1479-1533) concluded a trade agreement with Denmark, according to which home-based factories were founded in Vologda, Kholmogorov, Yaroslavl. 02030311
1. In the domestic market the most common form of land use during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries becomes conditional tenure in which the land was given to a vassal for a fixed term (temporary until used, for life, to the conclusion of service, in hereditary possession until the family recedes) and under certain conditions (as a mercy, for the development of wastelands; conditional tenure). Land use within the peasant population represents a compromise between the community and the private ownership of the land. Ordinary peasant community had the right to gicy to a peasant temporarily or in perpetual urgency plots of communal land, to change, to buy or to receive as a gift new land, but the sale of communal land was limited. 02030401
2. The land property (patrimony) of Nobility Moscow princes retain and ensure, striving since Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow from 1462, to extend the local land tenure system in which land was given to a person not in the property, but only for use on the service to the prince. The main ways of acquiring property were: sale, award, temporary by prescription. Charters in the XV. century stated the conditions under which land was transferred - with redemption or full ownership (in the future). Of the future limited ownership were stipulated that the person which has taken any piece of land, having erected on it buildings and ploughed farmland, was considered the owner of the site if it were used at least 4-5 years. 02030402
3. Value possessed only those parcels of land that were sold or transferred together with those who handle them. The estate was divided into farmers:
4. The term соха (plow land) took this meaning for small community of 3 to 60 ex - five yards, and served as the unit of taxes, levied on the calculation of cox and duties, including the call to war service. The plow and the allotment determined were depending on the quality of land and terrain roughness. For example, ten Novgorod cox equaled one plow in Moscow. 02030404
5. In the northern republics of Novgorod and Pskov, anciently was adhered to popular justice, narodopravstva. In the initial period of development of the conditions of total enslavement of the peasantry, there was a noticeable striving for freedom and usefulness of legal persons working for foreign lands, gardens and waters, being economically dependent on the landowner. In Judicial Charter of Novgorod and Pskov all were judged the equally, as well Boyar as farmer supplying food to the urban population and younger person (craftsman). In the charters established for every free person the ownership of land, the acquisition of the estate as a bequest or donation, as well as the right to purchase or exchange. This document defines the rules and monetary payment for civilian labor, agrarian workers and artisans. Per diem and temporary recruitment developed the sense of independence in work. 02030405
1. Gradual recovery of commodity production, the rise of great kingdoms and cities created in the second half of the XIV century conditions for the renewal of Russian coinage. 02030501
2. Since 1381 kunnaya system of cash account in Moscow principality begins to wither away. The new monetary system based on the ruble grivny consisting of 48 and 96 golden money. Then in the second half of the XV century, Moscow and Novgorod merge their monetary systems and begins the existence of the Russian national monetary system, which is used to this day. 02030502
1. In the XIV and XV centuries especially in the Orthodox Church is increasingly drawn into the sphere of commercial and industrial exchanges, despite the ban since the time of Ivan Kalita for white and black clergy to engage in trade and usury. When Dmitry Donskoy and his son Basil I (1371-1425) began to form open monaforopen, they owned land, large agricultural and industry management. So, in Iospfo Volokolamsk monastery, there were 489 cows, bulls and heifers, as well as 939 sheep, mowing common in the monastery reached 9 th dimensional copen (about 134 thousand pounds), and the arithmetic average cost of the monastery of serfdom was 7 rub. 60 kopecks. tithes of arable land [65; 235-236,208]. The founders of these monasteries were enterprising and energetic organizers of the lower clergy, townspeople and even peasants. Church representatives who received trade surplus income in kind, were exempted from all kinds of duties on the territory of Moscow Metropolis. In the metropolitan and episcopal chairs, as well as at princely courts existed workshops for dressing books like Western European scriptorium (from Lat. scriptor - copyist, scribe). Russian Orthodox Church in the face of the above mentioned Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, participated in the financing of the Battle of Kulikovo. 02030601
2. Abbots of the largest monasteries being exempt from the collection of tribute in favor of the Golden Horde, had an enviable entrepreneurial acumen. Their monasteries became fiefdoms of own land, fisheries, salt works. Podmoskovny Holy Trinity Monastery in the middle of the XV century sent only in Veliky Novgorod 300 carts in winter and summer as well. Their ships sailed with the goods on the Volga, Oka, Sheksna Northern Dvina and other trade routes notheastern Russia. St. Cyril monastery had several shopping courtyards in Vologda, Byelozero and sold rye, fish, salt, honey from Kholmogor to Moscow [33 31]. 02030602
3. At the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries religous Russia glorifies himself with a group of Moscow artists, in which is studying and working Andrei Rublev (c. 1360-1430), a monk - painter, most fully expressing national ideals of the Russian people, the belief in the moral power of man, the ability to self-sacrifice. Icon by Andrei Rublev Russian church council were announced as a model for artists, painter and he was esteemed as a Saviour. Supported entrepreneur Spyridon Stroganov, a native of Great Novgorod, the inventor of the iconographic consumer goods, the squad painters during the reign of Dmitry Donskoi creates the first Russian icon-painting school. Patriotic iconography exempt from student's dependence becomes complete identity and Russian. Iconography workshops are increasingly created outside church temples and monastries. Royal workshops in Moscow can be called the first art school in Russia. 02030603
4. Historic value as foreign guests and non-resident traders persists in XIV and XV centuries. In the monuments of this period are referred to guests-and surozhane sukonniki. Cloth was export goods overseas and delivered to us mainly from German cities. From surozhan sukonnikov (weavers). Moscow princes make large loans, these merchants are employed on Financial Management in Muscovy. 02030604
1. The period under review in the country's history is characterised, on the one hand, by the growth of cities and trading quarter, the strengthening of local and inter-regional markets, on the other hand, by a continuation of the princely infighting, the increasing number of local quarrels, bribery and extortion feudal with people shopping. 02030701
2. The specificity of the development of feudal relations in the conditions of existence of the community manifested in the dominance of small, one - and two servants settlements, especially in the North-Western Russia (70%), the strongest incentive for which were massive tax breaks for new settlers, establishing themselves on new, native lands [52 439]. 02030702
1. The next period - the era of centralization of Moscow (1480 - 1613), when, in the aftermath of the rule of the Golden Horde, the city loses its significance as an independent political and economic organism and turns into a conglomerate of separate principalities having no bonds between them as tax paying entities. Since the end of XV to XVII century occurs the formation, common to the whole country, of a single Moscow State of separate fiefdoms, entailing a change of land tenure, the organization of urban management and community self-government. 02040001
1. State struggling with the growing desolation taxpaying community involvement in their composition in living-svoezemtsy people who owned vacant land and serving people (janitors) have lived in the courtyards of large owners, and attribution to individual community Posad monastery and other possessory slobodies. Large manorial landowners (boyars, higher church ranks, monasteries) inferior land in the cities of Moscow sovereigns. Urban management into the hands of governors appointed by the monarch, later governor-[20, 209]. 02040101
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| 14. Anthropometric origin of popular measures |
2. Power of Muscovy rulers was a kind replacement of khan despotism. Gradually began disappearing the feeling of freedom, honor, awareness of personal dignity, being replaced by such qualities of the Russian soul as subservience to senior officials, absolute power over subordinates people. Behavior of officials determined by flattery, vodka, bribery and fear. Opening of new retail points in villages and communities had to be separately confirmed by Ivan III, and his grandson, Ivan IV the Terrible (1530-1584) forbade the trade in such famous places as Torzhok, Cola at the river Don, forestal Charanda and craft center of Serpukhov. 02040103
3. As to the form of government, since the mid XV-century Russia became absolute monarchy. Title autocrat like the Russian coat of arms, was borrowed from the Byzantine emperors. Ivan III, who married Sophia Palaeologus, niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, ordered the minting of the title Tsar of All Russia on the state seal and on the coins. Dogma of unlimited power of the Muscovite sovereign ruler (Greek autocrator) was deployed in the writings of Joseph of Volokolamsk (1439-1515), founder and abbot of St. Joseph Volokolamsk Monastery, the divine origin of power ("king just by nature like human, but his power is divine, as from God"). Royal document of genealogy presented the origin Muscovy dynasty, not from St. Vladimir and Vladimir Monomakh, champions of the Russian land, but originating via Prussia from the Roman Caesar Augustus. Slavic Center became political, ecclesiastical successor to the Byzantine Empire, the New Constantinople. Ivan III begins to be titled John, by the grace of God, the sovereign of all Russia. 02040104
4. However, the term sovereign Russian language has long been known, it existed next to the prince and meant primarily the type of host - owner, the father, the head of the house, domineering man in private relations. In monuments church literature XI-XIV centuries sovereigns or Gospodarev were called, for example, the householder, patrimonial, the owner and the owner of the fields servants, all - himself. 02040105
5. In the dictionary of V.I. Dahl the pronoun self appears on the top of all word-formations, occupying 11 slim columns. This record is saying that the word сам (self, alone) originally was used by the people to gain personal importance to give special importance of personal activities. "I'll go myself," said the first mother of ours, when she was taken out of Eden, that is going of her own will, not of others. From this root: identity, autocracy, tyranny and complacency, selfless, independent, and suicide. 02040106
6. And all these facets of human nature belong to the features of Russian entrepreneurs: human boldness, decidedness, ability to companies, to handle large turnovers. 02040107
7. Great Russia, Moscow, Tsarist-Boyar, military-land-owner opened a new period in the history of the country - with half of the XV century, associated with the formation of Great Moscow under the authority of the sovereign, accompanied by a spreading of the population of the Upper Volga region to the south and east. 02040108
1. During the reign of Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow (1462-1505), formed the nucleus of a single territorial state with the accession of the Russian Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Tver, Vyatka, Perm and others; was overthrown the Mongol- Tatar yoke, composed Судебник "Book of Law" in 1497, the first all-Russian law code, replacing "Russian Truth." The system of centralized state power was legislated, as well as the economic policies in the field of land tenure, finance, trade with the establishment of special institutions (orders) for the management of these areas. Spreading began such all-Russian words as peasant, money, arable land, shop, village, lace, buttons and other, but began to disappear such old terms as шеляг (old monetary unit), смерд (serf), куны (old monetary unit) ym. 02040201
2. Economic policies of Ivan III included the elimination of the vestiges of feudal fragmentation of Rus, the suppression of separatist aspirations, undermining the economic power of feudal princes and boyars, the creation and consolidation of centralized authority, centralization of finance, minting coins only in Moscow, the beginning of the local land tenure system (for service and the duration of service) and the establishment of the service nobility, the transition from indiscriminate capital taxation and homestead taxation (unit of taxation - plow was 400 - 600 ha of arable land), development of crafts, especially iron and steel (example: the Tsar Cannon and tsar Bell), direct trade relations with the West, and finally, wine monopoly. 02040202
3. One of the largest Russian factories in that period is the foundry Cannon Yard in Moscow (1479). From mid XV. is acting also another state-owned factory: Armory, Gold and Silver Chamber, Money yard Harmony yard (textile workshop). 02040203
4. Since the end of the XV century on the seals of the Emperor of All Russia Ivan III appears Byzantine arms - two-headed eagle. 02040204
5. Father's principles were put into practice also by Vassily III, Grand Prince of Moscow from 1505 when the unification of Rus by submission of Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan was completed. 02040205
6. If the accession of Ivan III of Moscow Grand Duchy territory, estimated V.O. Kliuchevsky, hardly contained more than 15 thousand square miles, the acquisition of Ivan III and his son increased the area of at least by 40,000 square miles, which is almost four times. Merging lands and principalities into one explains the increasing exchange between the regions growth of commodity circulation and the concentration of small local markets into a single Russian market, managers and owners of which became merchants and their trading capital [60, 86]. 101> 02040206
7. In the law of the Moscow centralized state under Ivan III there are still different government monopolies, state-owned trading, designated only to guests of the government. The introduction of the first vodka monopoly (1474) was preceded by the first demonstration of Genoa merchants to the Moscow boyars of burning Aquavit (1386) and the beginning of distillation and production of vodka in the monasteries (1440). 02040207
1. Combining Russian lands under Vasily III was accomppanied by reform of the financial and industrial sectors, including special terminology. Economic mediation between producers and consumers, buying goods from manufacturers for resale to consumers in Russia were named trade. Sales as their works, both agricultural and all other mined industrial production, now named sale. 02040301
2. To selling in order to maintain the price of essentials and the development of various industries were given more favorable conditions than to the export and duty-free import. 02040302
3. Trade was divided into: wholesale trade, manufactured goods from any parties merchant offices, barns, warehouses and ships; retail, i.e. the scattered trade from shops, stores, etc. institutions; and petty commerce (including peddling outside the city limits, in the counties). 02040303
4. Charter of duties involved not only trade in the strict sense, but also trading activities, which ranked as different banking operations, maintenance craft establishments and factories, transport offices, carting, a variety of contracts, the duties of trading assistants. 02040304
1. I recall that in the last decade of XV. and the first two decades of XVI. were marked by the greatest geographical discoveries. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) in three caravels crossed the Atlantic Ocean and 12 October 1492 dropped anchor off the coast of San Salvador, beginning the exploration and conquest of the New World. Portuguese Admiral Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) from 20 May 1498 to establish direct maritime relations between India and Western Europe, freeing European merchants from expensive houses of Arabs and wealthy Venetian merchants monopoly on trade with South Asia. Began development of new forms of emerging overseas trade, growing rapidly, and its shopping centers - Antwerp, Amsterdam, Bruges, etc. In 1531 in Antwerp arises Exchange, where merchants and their agents exhibit samples of goods, the parties which they intent trading. Discovery of silver mines in the New World increased the share of American silver in relation to all silver mined in Western Europe, with 17.9% in the 1521-1540 years. to 88.1 % in 1581-1600 gg. [3, 8]. Merchant entrepreneurs who founded in 1566 the London Stock Exchange, organized a special company to establish a waterway to Muscovy, with fairly advanced for its time domestic trade, and to the Caspian Sea - to India, China, Persia. 02040401
1. In the second half of the XV century appears also the domestic entrepreneur, explorer, discovering new ways and uninhabited land on the northern and eastern borders of Russia. Very typical national figure of realizing the importance of his mission was Athanasius Nikitin (? -1472), who comes from a relatively poor environment of Tver merchants. He was appointed head of a commercial caravan sent to the Caucasus and Persia (Shamakha). Procured goods on the account of Russia mainly in debt and having been subject to looting in the Caspian Sea, near Astrakhan, Athanasius Nikitin, weeping, went on aimlessly. He already had experience of the travel trade in Wallachia and Podol, and after Persia Nikitin comes to India, a quarter century before Vasco da Gama. Tver merchant's journey lasted from 1466 to 1472. On his way back, visiting the coast of Africa (Somalia), Muscat in Arabia, Turkey, he fell ill and died near Smolensk. 02040501
2. Talented manuscript Nikitina "Journey Beyond Three Seas", a product, not local, but all-Russian, even of European orientation, was apparently known to the Government, delivered to Moscow (written notebook brought by merchants to Basil Mamyrev, the deacon of the Grand Duke) and entered in the Chronicles. His own work Athanasius Nikitin, who lost on the way back all the property and forgetting about the commercial failures, rightly considers as the most important result of his life: " Here I wrote my sinful Journey Beyond Three Seas: first sea Derbent, Sea Khvalynskoe, second Indian Sea, Hindustan sea, third sea Black sea, Istanbul " [39 362]. Adventurous, inquisitive man, surprised by foreign curiosities, Nikitin enthusiastically and efficiently writes about unusual for Russian human phenomena of economy, trade, culture, life, nature, considering what out of the foreign experiences is suitable and what not for Russian life. Quickly learning languages, the sociable and unpretentious merchant Athanasius Nikitin gets thoroughly familiar with the subject of trade of each city, with nature and the inhabitants of each country. Remembering home, Nikitin exclaimed: "The Russian land - yes keep it God, God save her! In this world there is no other such beautiful country. Yes, let the Russian land flourish! " [59, 65]. 02040502
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| 15. Athanasius Nikitin's journey to India (1466-1472) |
3. Later, there were dozens, if not hundreds, of local entrepreneurs and pioneers rushing in the second half of the XVI century, after the conquest of Kazan, of stone. Eastern Zauralie became the cradle of the future economic culture where Russia, the Slavs will contribute to the spiritual development of all mankind. Embarking in risky ventures and travel through the vast continent stretching over polar cold, our ancestors make no greed for fame, but with people's curiosity, boldness, love of freedom explorers became mostly from the lower social strata, especially from among the Christian hordes - restless Cossacks. 02040504
1. However, in the era of centralization of Moscow, every resident of the state was deprived of all political and legal independence in favor of the salvation of national unity, national integrity and independence. Practice of Novgorod republican system was cast out, triumphed an autocratic form of government under which Moscow grand dukes and kings (the first coronation to the Byzantine model was Ivan IV in 1547) sought to narrow the rights of the individual and, above all, the current property independence of the boyars and merchants of free ownership, turning them into slaves. Claiming local tenure type, the central Moscow government made the slave owner dependent, because the emperor could increase, reduce or take away the estate. 02040601
2. Peasants the period of Moscow centralization already shared into four categories: chernososhny (community), palace, local and patrimonial and slaves. Living on the local peasants' and manorial lands gradually turned to slaves. In his "Code of Law" Ivan III demanded that the peasants, passing St. George's Day from one master to another, demanded for life payment in the amount of one-quarter of ruble a year. 02040602
3. With the conquest of Novgorod in 1478 landowners, including monastries, had been taken about 90 thousand acres of land and manorial estates as given. Novgorod could defend its economic freedom, as long as the concept of Russian autocracy was not normal procedure. Seven years later, in 1485, Novgorod boyars lost their land and merchants moved into their estate near Moscow and Novgorod fiefdoms were given estates to Moscow people [89, 32]. Patrimonial land and buildings were inherited only by those persons who had been listed in the charter. If the heirs were not labeled, patrimony, according to the conciliar decree, passed into the treasury. 02040603
4. At the end of XV. under Ivan III began work on the restructuring of cathedrals, palaces and fortifications of Kremlin. Along with Russian architects were brought craftsmen from Italy (Aristotle Fioravanti, Aleviz Novi, Antonio Frazin, Marco Ruffo). In addition to the Assumption, Archangel and Annunciation cathedrals, in the Kremlin was built a new princely palace (1481-1508), consisting of a series of interconnected buildings, chambers, including Granovity. 02040604
1. On the top of the tradesfolk of this period was a privileged class the guests having tax breaks and getting independent from local authorities the right to travel all over the territory of the Moscow State. All other trade people in the cities were surrounded by monetary obligation, gratuitous service to the state in the sale of state-owned goods and the duty to be always attributed to their residence, without the right to transfer to another city. Instead these constraints, these people received the right to trade, customs and maintenance leases, served in pubs and inns of a large town, engaged in collecting customs duties and state revenues from the sale of wine. As a result, hardly originated commercial and industrial class becomes slaves in service of state; largest and most profitable trade was concentrated in the hands of foreigners and the royal sovereign's treasury. 02040701
2. A. Contarini in "The Tale of travel to Moscow in 1476-1477" notes that the city throughout the winter attracts many European merchants. Both Moscow and Novgorod, spaced apart from it eight days' journey, merchants buy exclusively fur - sables, foxes, weasels, squirrels, foxes and even bobcats. Around Moscow, according to Contarini, large forest region is extremely rich in all sorts of cereals, Russian sell a huge amount of cow and pig meat, lots of birds and other game, chickens are given hundred for a ducat, for the same price forty ducks but geese stand on three for each. Merchants usually bought goods by wagons, boats, plows or entire warehouses without attempting to exact calculations. There is an eastern belief: accurate measurement harms trade luck. 02040702
3. Most entertaining picture marked the traveler from Italy at the end of October on the frozen Moscow River, which withstood ice plotted for various goods shops, contains an enormous amount of grain, beef, pork, fish, chicken, wood, hay, and other necessary supplies. A special treat aroused Contarini at the spectacle of whole pig carcasses and skins peeled from cows delivered for sale on the market by the end of November. On the ice of a frozen river townspeople staged horse races and other amusements. Foreigner celebrates the beauty of the Russian people, both men and women, and the image of the everyday lives of our ancestors Muscovites: in the morning they stand in the bazaars around until noon, then go to the tavern to eat and drink, and after that time it is no longer possible to bring them to any business case [70, 22,23]. 02040703
4. Centralized self-sufficient state in Russia is not regarded as a national union, but as a sovereign parish. After the fall of the Golden Horde khans tribute (тамга) does not disappear, new appear. With XIV. declared taxes mead, beer, honey, to mouth, and from the end of the XIV century, when Russia first appeared vodka and taxes on vodka. 02040704
5. Alcoholic beverages are known to mankind for a long time. Russia develops its special secrets and recipes of beer, malt, honey. After the appearance of vodka began to multiply taverns that before only one or two historians mention in Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Pskov. In other cities and villages they did not exist. [67, 196]. 02040705
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| 16. Cities of Moscow State - State borders |
6. At the beginning of the XV century certain princes are introducing their own inns, imposing duties on drinks, for purely selfish purposes according to honour and conscience. Among the occupations for which people were excommunicated, along with magicians and scoundrels were now mentioned also inn-keepers. In response, Prince protegees or operators of their manors were mentioned as robbers and publicans. Belozersky monastery abbot Cyril wrote about Mozha to Andrew, Prince of Mozhai: "And you, my lord, hearken unto me: taverns in your paternals did not exist; look, o lord, they bring big misery to souls." In 1543, when Ivan the Terrible's messenger Ivan Krivoi arranged in Veliky Novgorod eight inn yards, Bishop Theodosius wrote bitterly to Muscovite tsar: "For God's sake, sir, get cleansed and consider your paternal property. In taverns people are incessantly dying without repentance and communion" [67, 220]. 02040707
7. After Kazan campaign Ivan the Terrible builds for guardsmen at Baltshug a custom house and denominates it with the Turkish word kabak (tavern). The only throughout Russia tsar's tavern, which existed in Moscow in mid XVI. is spreading quickly throughout the State of Moscow, but Russian inn-keeper, free entrepreneur was prosecuted as smuggler. In the criminal inn-keeping was the common crime of all the people. 02040708
8. Since the 20s of the 16th century, due to flood into Europe of cheap American monetary metal - gold and silver, the century became the century of price revolution. A tidal wave of cheap silver on trade channels reached also Muscovy. In the West, the average price increase for the century was 2 to 2.5 times, in the XVI century Muscovy they grew according to Acad. S.G. Strumilin (1877-1974), for cattle 2.5 times, for bread 4 to 4.5 times, while the average for all goods was 3 to 4 times [81, 62]. 02040709
9. But growth of monetary metal helped to ensure the expansion of commodity circulation. In Russia there are tens and hundreds of capitalist workshops with hired labor, which in the XVII century grow into quite large centralized manufactories, encouraging uprising of nationwide market. 02040710
10. German diplomat S. von Herbertstein (1486-1566), author of "Notes on Muscovite Affairs" visited Russia in 1517 and 1526. He says that anyone who brings to Moscow some goods, after their announcement and evaluation of duties or customs by officers, does not dare to sell them before the goods are shown to emperor. If the sovereign wishes to buy something, the merchant at this time is not allowed to show any products or offer them to anyone [70, 80-81]. The great prince should be in shortage of nothing. 02040711
11. S. Gerberstein mentions the story of a citizen of Cracow, who brought two quintals of copper. Sovereign (Vasily III) was going to buy this copper, but the decision took so long that the merchant had enough, and he took the product back. In just a few miles from Moscow officials caught up with him, the ban was imposed on the property under the pretext of non-payment of duties. Merchant returned to Moscow with complaint for loss caused to him by the offense. Officials promised to settle the matter, if the citizen of Cracow asks mercy from the sovereign. But the merchant, knowing that authorities would consider it shameful for Muscovy if such goods were returned from his powers: hence no one was found who could strike a bargain on the expensive copper and pay for it, the merchant did not ask mercy but justice, and achieved by the purchase of copper on behalf of the Emperor a good price [70, 82]. 02040712
12. Foreigners noticed that increase, to a certain extent unbearable (one fifth, ie twenty percent) none of the Russian merchants abstains, although they say amongst themselves, that it is a great sin. 02040713
13. But Ivan the Terrible, the proponent of free trade with England, took to government possession of Jerome Gorseya (?-approx. 1626) the thirteen ships of products - copper, lead, gunpowder, saltpetre and sulfur for the price of nine thousand livres [70, 181]. The English merchant and traveler, who understood the Greek closely adjoined to folk speech of Muscovites, and named Russian language the richest and most elegant in the world. 02040714
1. The State was responsible only for ensuring that all what it needed were given to the treasury. At the end of 1500's there was a paying statute for all strata of the final fund, it was a time of state financial management slavery, training to tax payers as at the same time was created the profession and chosen the specific officials to village elders that led the levying of the tax community and local purposes, but also customs officials and loyal managers and agency managers, which were sent to the scene of the faithful Moscow men. The soldiers and officers looted everything, not only the money but also pies, drinks, candles, and the shovels, and they themselves took, took the daughters and wives. Industrial and agricultural people were enslaved alike. State that wars and requisition plagued, had all and served all. Intolerable and unsustainable taxes spotlessly deprived citizens. 02040801
2. Further enslavement of peasants (forbidden years, when abolished was the right to change place and employer at St. George's Day) in the middle of XVI. resulted from the attachment of peasants to tyaglo, the tax paying community, the extraordinary growth of debt, to which landowners entangled peasants. Peasant ruin and continuous war inevitably led to depopulation, reduced cultivated area, frustration of farms. Unspecified legislative and administrative hierarchy and anarchy bred lawless type of control on the basis of country estate system and turned to centuries of overbearing lawlessness (illegal totalitarianism). 02040802
3. Contemporary of Ivan the Terrible and participant of the events German citisen H. Stade rightly concludes: 02040803
4. "Although the almighty God punished Russian ground so hard and cruel that no one fails to describe, yet the current Grand Duke achieved that the entire Russian land throughout his empire had one king, one faith, one measure. He alone rules! Everything that he will order, everything is done, and all that ban really remains a taboo subject. He was not contradict neither by spiritual nor laity. And how long will this last, knows only God - the Almighty! "[93, 113]. 02040804
5. Grozny finished creating a unified state system of measurements (measures of length, area, volume and weight) and a single monetary system, in accordance with the objectives of the centralized state. Countable units became ruble, poltina, hryvnia, altyn. Monetary policy of Ivan the Terrible was that of the administrative state power. Banned was the export of money and all the precious metals from the country (the first stage of the policy of mercantilism). Money that was brought from abroad was dutiable. This shows that in Russia in XVI. the theory of monetary balance was applied. 02040805
6. Also a tax reform took place. which was expressed in the introduction of so-called Moscow large plow. Prior to that, in various areas of the Moscow State were used different land evvaluation units: vyti, obzhi, bows and local plow and bipods of different sizes. The size of the officially recognized large plow of Moscow varied depending on the quality of land in the 400 - 500 - 600 acres. In the cities every 100 households were people of a shopping plow. 02040806
7. The magnitude of the tax was determined by the size of the tax land area, land quality, estate owner. For example, the monastic lands were subject to more tax than the Local. Monasteries were deprived of literacy and special Tarhan, previously liberated clergy from customs duties and trade. 02040807
8. It is curious that the state attempts to land on monasteries took place not only in Russia. In 1536-1539 King of England Henry VIII, having squandered his father left the treasury, and began with the abolition of small monasteries with an annual income of less than £ 200, they were followed by large, who owned one-fifth to one-third of all the land. Totally were abolished more than three thousand monasteries with a total annual income of £161,000. The Constantly increasing Protestant party in England met this looting quietly without hostility [70, 73]. 02040808
9. Judicial reform of Ivan the Terrible was reduced to the adoption of a new "Codex of Laws" (1550) single for the whole country based on the proceedings of jury. "Codex of Law" abolished slavery for debt, encouraged the practice of wage labor and restricted bondage, it introduces the concept of servile bondage, that is working on the host specified by the contract term, instead of paying interest on the loan. Possession of ancestral lands from the middle of the XVI century for each landowner was conditioned by service to the king, though patrimony was still much more common form of ownership than the estate. 02040809
1. In the domestic industry of XV-XVI centuries of the greatest importance were salt production, potash business, textiles, metallurgy. 02040901
2. Russian peasants have long produced fabrics of wool and linen, mainly for personal use. With cloth, canvas, yarn, they paid the rent to the landlord. At the beginning of XVI. near Moscow appears royal hamovny (weaving) settlement, a community of industrial type, fortress of manufactory in which the industrial population was dependent of sovereign's salary for serving the hamovny service producing fabrics for the Grandducal family, then later for the royal court. 02040902
3. Hesitant steps into the industry began to take Russian merchants that occupied by trade high social position in the Moscow centralized state. They performed a number of important government orders to collect tribute (national suburban tax), participated in a large foreign trade, were in charge of collecting customs duties, they guided royal trading monopolies. 02040903
4. Particularly privileged place occupied by the so-called royal guests of the capital group of eminent professional merchants, owning high net worth of capital. Guests traded on behalf of the king and the Treasury: in the middle of XVI. in the hands of the king and the state treasury were the trade in grain, hemp, caviar, potash and other commodities, although private, independent capital of large merchants prevailed over that ox the Treasury. 02040904
5. Besides the capital, trade was led in major provincial agglomerations. The ancestor of the famous Stroganoff is considered Novgorod merchant Spyridon, who lived there during the time of Dmitry Donskoy and supported a squad of Moscow painters. Great-grandson of the legendary Spyridon, Fedor Lukic, 1488 settled in Solvychegodsk and began buying furs from foreigners; Stroganov in 1519 as a private industrialist were given the charter for the salt pans, forests and sale of salt in Solvychegods territory. Note that in Kiev Rus salt was imported mainly from the Crimea. Salt production began to develop in the Novgorod land where there were many sources of salt brines. One of the sons of F.K. Stroganov first started to sail Russian ships in the White Sea. 02040905
6. Stroganovs, the founders of commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, acted as merchants in the XIV century, Then traded throughout the state and abroad. They traded salt, bread, fish, iron, furs, wax, leather, fur, silk, cloth and other goods. They owned large industrial enterprises, especially the saltworks, which employed as many as 5000 to serfs and 10,000 free workmen. In 1570 Anikei Stroganov received from Ivan the Terrible concession to a wild place at Vym river in Perm land and permission to look for salt in those wild places, pickle place and put up salt production, plowed farmland and forest to clear. It is known that they owned saltworks at Sergovoy mountain on Vym in the XVII century. Prosperous peasants lived on grandducal settlements, and after them - a major trader of Galic Pankratiev merchant. Salt reserves in the area of the current republic of Komi, between Vychegda and Pechora, and today large enough to ensure the salt industry in unlimited term. Stroganov had in Perm land their towns and kept hiring troops for defense against raids and hordes of foreigners Trans-Ural Siberian Khan Kuchum. These ownership Kama Chusovoi served as a starting base for penetration of entrepreneurs beyond the Urals. 02040906
7. Stroganoff with 1572 expedition financed Yermak, one of his mercenaries in stone, in the Siberian Khanate. Considered precisely established [49; 184] that among the companions of Yerrmak, and among the people hired for service in Siberian Godunovs, there were many literate, who could read and write. Simple Cossacks of Yermak later gave Archbishop Kyprianou written testimony about going to Siberia, where, according to ancient legends of Novgorod, Russian people sought for five hundred years before the hike of Yermak. They came here to trade, made alliances with the leaders of local tribes, offering them friendship, engaged in debate. Groups of Yermak replenished conductors of the Permian Komis, who were able to communicate with the Siberian natives, share with them not only engaged in the extraction of marine animals and small junk - lush precious furs, but also staged mining enterprises and settlements in the Urals and Altai. 02040907
8. In 1586 was founded Tumen River Tour in 1587 - Tobolsk, which later became the center of the development of Siberia in 1592 - Bereshov, in 1601 - Turinsk. 02040908
9. To ice gates of Lukomorya foreigners sought goal. European skippers conspired Arkhangelsk seafarers show the way to a fabulous Mangazeya to the mouths of the Ob and Yenisei. Repose on the Novaya Zemlya, open to them then, found also a Dutch navigator W. Barents (c. 1550-1597), who tried to cross from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from Europe to China. 02040909
10. After capturing the capital of Siberia Isker (1582) Stroganoff made charters granting the entire basin of the Tobol. Stroganoff estate comprised an area comparable with a few European countries. 02040910
11. In one century (1579 to 1678) Russian population increased in Great Perm from 2197 to 11,811 households, i.e. by 463%, whereas in general throughout Muscovy natural population growth did not reach 15% in the same period [82; 334]. 02040911
 |
| 17. Yermak, the conqueror of Siberia. People in XIX splint. |
12. Yermak behaved towards the Siberian tribes not as an invader, occupier, but as "sir, that so pleased what citizens can bring harmless" [31; 29]. 02040913
1. In addition to the Cossacks and merchants, professionals, unparalleled in the colonization movement to the East in XVI. attended by numerous merchants, peasants, and servicemen and martial people, gunners, riflemen, clergy, artisans townsmen. First pioneers match the Urals and Siberia, had extraordinary energy, stamina, love of freedom, courage, assertiveness. Beginning their journey from Ustiug Great pioneers moved down and up the rivers, freely pulled their sleds through the mountains and swamps, wintered, built new sleds, moving to the Pacific Ocean. All clearer and clearer protruded from obscurity still unknown to world, formed a significant part of the Asian continent. No wonder this great epic has been compared with the promotion of Magellan's expedition (ok. 1480 -1521), the first circumnavigation of the globe. 02041001
2. Sweetly cooking Mangazeya in Siberia gained prominence under Boris Godunov (1552-1605), to whom the scouts reported that the unknown eastern countries, on the river of Taz Pur, are full of Russian people. They have been there for a long time: who sells, who hunts and who takes tribute from samoyedi falsely [49; 188] As many as thousand visitors received in some years the freestyled Mangazeya. As many as hundred thousand sable skins passed through the city in the winter fair. Merchants from Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Vologda, Yaroslavl carried goods and Mangazeya became large, well-fortified city. Within three sazhen thick walls stood more than two hundred houses, two churches, house for session of Provincial caucus, warehouses, customs, two taverns, commercial baths, prison [49; 198]. In the river port dozens of ships were anchoring. 02041002
3. In Moscow a special Siberian statute was published, according to which celebrity guests were engaged rating furs, served extensive palatial economy, which included the royal court with its many services and industries, owned estates near Moscow and extensive grounds around the country. 02041003
1. Massive local trade in central Russia combined sale of products with the implementation of production for personal needs of goods purchased in bulk and deeply entered into the life of producers. In rural areas, trade unfolded around monasteries, river jetties and near intersections carriage roads. On similar small markets visitors and local traders were buying agricultural products reselling them in the cities, getting to the village salt, iron, tools, and expensive fabrics, garment, cloth, shoes, etc. In the course of these relationships of industrial and agricultural production at a national market, except forms and fair market trade, developed a mobile form of domestic trade, representatives of which were farmers and local small merchants. 02041101
2. Assistive technologies were used in market trade, from spot to stand the buildings, ending up to standing in front of the doors to trade booths where goods were available for inspection. Soon appear lines of booths, which specialize in the sale of certain goods. Opposite the Moscow Kremlin was in 1546 at the behest of Ivan the Terrible were built tone rows of stores (hats, boots, Korobei stone, wax, honey, baked goods, luxury goods, et al.), The place was renamed Gostinnyj Dvor. 02041102
3. Result of wars against the remnants of Ivan the Terrible was the defeat of the Khan's reign and the accession of the Kazan (1552), Astrakhan (1556), Siberia (1555-1600) and the Nogai Horde Khanate (1558). 02041103
4. Livonian War, ruinous for the Treasury and failed militarily, led by Ivan the Terrible, did not bring to Russia the desired access to the Baltic Sea. On the contrary, it strengthened economic and cultural blockade of the rising Russian state. Polish King Sigismund II (1520-1572), seeking to entice England against Moscow, wrote to Elizabeth of England (1533-1603): "Moscow sovereign daily increases his power purchasing items that are brought to Narva; not only goods, but also weapons, hitherto unknown to him; not only works of arts, but artists through which he has a chance to win all." 02041104
5. Swedish King Gustav Vasa (1496-1560) also urged the Queen of England not to multiply the power and wealth of Russian trade, not to strengthen their friendship with Russian Tsar, dangerous already without it. Together with the master of the Livonia, Swedish king advised not to send to Russia foreign artists, no foreign artists and scholars, for thereby Europe would only enhance Russian power, opening there asylum for all Western heretics [60; 96]. 02041105
6. Expanding external relations would only worsen the case. 02041106
7. Continued an era of great geographical discoveries, beginning from the the expedition of Columbus and the emergence in Europe of the first Hispanic tons of gold, which stimulated the original accumulation of capital. In 1553 the English explorer Richard Chancellor (? - 1556) in search of the notheastern route to India sailed to the White Sea. Instead of India Chancellor's ship hit the mouth of the Northern Dvina and stuck to the village of Novo-Kholmogory, later renamed to Arkhangelsk. Captain Chancellor was brought to Moscow and favored by the emperor: Ivan the Terrible primarily needed a political union with England to obtain weapons from the West, which the Poles and Swedes do not want to allow. Without modern weapons the victory in the Livonian War would not be possible. For the sake of political union the tsar promised to English merchants and industrialists serious privileges: "Sire, the king and the Grand Duke, in their bargain with the Russian state, would order them to walk safely and trade from sea and fold them to buy and build without hindrance." 02041107
8. Opening the Northern Sea Route to Muscovy the English equated to the discovery of the sea route to India, and opening Muscovy itself with the discovery of America: they did not want to give any naval glory to Portuguese or Spanish. 02041108
9. Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible included assumption of foreign capital in Russia. Anglo-Russian trade company ("Moscovy company") was organized on the model and in imitation of the Hanseatic League, in 1555, Ivan IV granted preferential certificates to free entry to Moscow and exit from it. In 1567 was allowed duty-free trade in Kazan and Astrakhan, Narva and Derite; free transit of goods to Bukhara, China, Persia. Commercial courts were arranged in Kholmogory and Vologda. British businessmen were given the right of monopoly trade at the mouth of the Northern Dvina, allowed to look ore, build factories, teach Russian metallurgical business people, to get to the water-powered Vychegda manufactory with the right of removal of iron to England on duties paid. In Kholmogory spinning mill was built for them, in Vologda cable manufacture. Harbor for Arctic Ocean and the White Sea were open only to the Anglo-Russian company. In 1569 we add to this the right to mint coins for English in Russian mints and a privilege to live anywhere in Russia by their own law. 02041109
10. The company attained the exclusive right to trade with Moscow and by the royal government in London. However, as with other countries, north, notheast or north-west of England; any attempt to break the monopoly of foreign trade with these countries threatened infringer with confiscation of goods. 02041110
11. Capital of "Moscovy company" was defined to 6000 pounds and was composed of shares of 25 pounds, distributed in 1555 between 207 shareholders. Company was headed by senior representatives of the English nobility, among them 6 Lords, closely associated with the court of Queen [3; 14-15]. Above all, the principle of creating equity organization gave British merchants and entrepreneurs competitive edge in the struggle for markets and trade routes, not only in Russia but also in Central Asia, Persia, India and China. By 1565 the number of owners had grown to 400 shareholders. 02041111
12. Ivan the Terrible himself sent by Ambassador J. Gorsey generous gifts to the English queen Elizabeth. According Gorsey, "she touched with her hand to every detail; first to her was given four pieces of Persian gold brocade and two-piece dress, embroidered with silver, amazing work; rich broad ceremonial dress white printed fabric, on which was depicted the sun shining in full splendor; gold and silver interwoven rays with the most vivid oriental flowers on a smooth ground plane embroidered with gold and silver, silks, with which even more the beauty of the figure was enhanced. Then served was lovely Turkish carpet, four ligaments of the richest black sable, six large stained lucerne, two coats or dresses, covered with a white cloth " [70; 212]. Queen even sweating from exhaustion, in fear of letting go close of those of her sweet and asking something as present behind the windows of the palace queen was waited by two merlins, a pack of dogs, falcons and hawks from the formidable tsar of Moscow. 02041112
13. But political union with England failed. "You have, in addition to you, other people ruling, not only the people and the men of trade, - stated in the letter to Queen Elizabeth in 1570, Tsar Ivan offended. - You belong to the same rank as any simple girl...". In a fit of anger Ivan the Terrible confiscated goods of English merchants, and added to the message to the queen: «Here in Muscovy we do well also without English guests" [59 ; 77]. Once the attack had passed, the king returned goods. But the seizure ended to the murder of his son Ivan, and essentially led to the extinction of the Rurik dynasty. 02041113
14. With Tsar Feodor privileges were fully restored to the English despite the heavy customs losses; only retail trade was banned. It's safe to say that the British also after Ivan the Terrible, to whom at home the nickname "English King" was given, enjoyed much more privileges than the merchants of other countries, who arriving the first time in Russia by first time arriving were met with great losses and longings. Elizabeth was greatly impressed by Tsar Fedor stating that other foreigners were not allowed to trade in his sovereign land. Entry to the capital, in particular, for Jewish merchants under Ivan the Terrible was banned: They alienated Russian people from Christianity and brought herbal potions in our land and did mischievous acts to many of our people [98; 23]. Benchmark in Russia's rapprochement with the West was considered the English-Russian trading company. 02041114
15. Europe has supplied not only goods, but also experienced craftsmen artists, doctors, prospectors, despite the opposition of the company's competitors - German lands and especially Poland, who believed in the competitive and political struggle Muscovy being "hereditary enemy of all free peoples "; it should not, they say, be allowed to take up European culture and fabricated items needed for the war; in the latter case, the West could, in their opinion, be wary of a "terrible invasion of brutal enemies the Muscovites." 02041115
16. Instructions worked out for the agents of the company going to Russia, included the study of the Russian language and its people in all classes of society: human morals, customs, taxes, monetary and measuring systems, products that could be profitably sold in Russia. However, merchants were forbidden to disclose "information about our religion," but suggested "to circumvent the issue in silence and not speak out, pretending that we have the same laws and customs, which are in force in the country where you are going." To determine the nature and the views of local residents it was suggested "primarily to lure or to capture and bring to our ships of any person and find out from him without violence." With a captured person it was recommended that he be treated well, fed and clothed," intoxicated and ferred out the secrets of his heart." English merchant were forbidden to go away to the beach and take on faith endearments of foreigners, which can be crafty and deceitful. Own products be recommended above others and assumed no show of interest of the kind of "you wanting to get their victuals and products, but nonetheless taking them as a sign of friendship, and for the sake of barter" [3; 34-35]. 02041116
17. On the way from England to Muscovy merchants and other persons skilled in writing, should keep daily records indicating the names of the peoples and lands, manufactured products and negative features of the country; public goods needed by the population and what goods they are willing to part; what metals they have in the mountains and rivers, on the ground or in the ground. 02041117
18. During the voyage, the ship was imposed a ban on blasphemy, filthy, obscene stories, as well as on the dice, cards and "other devilish game, from which there is not only ruin of the players, but disputes, dissensions, quarrels, fights and sometimes even murder"[3; 32]. Condemned were conspiracies, splits, groupings, gossip, false messages as seeds and fruits of disputes, dissension and disorder. 02041118
19. Merchants were not allowed to show or sell their goods without the knowledge and consent of their elders. All goods traded, purchased or transferred by the company through sales transactions were entered into books, merchandise packaged and stored in a common stock. Autopsy of bales and the possibility of product substitution is not allowed until the merchandise is to be unloaded at the port of arrival. 02041119
20. However, in the Moscow State by the end of the XVI century were trading merchants of different nations: the Swedes and the French from 1587, Lithuanians and Poles after the peace of Tyavzin in 1595, Livonians, merchants of Hamburg and Bremen, the Danes. True, they were ordered to pay duties in the old days. 02041120
1. In the sixteenth century became widespread "Domostroj" one of the first Russian literary monuments, which widely represents the Christian attitude towards people and ideas of the private sector, strengthening of private property based on thrift, obedience, and a pure conscience. "Domostroj" expounded a new relation of man to the people and to the world (God) from the standpoint of personal moral sense. Considered unrighteous life of someone who mends all the iniquity and violence, and resentment and does not pay debts, torments red tape, and humble man throughout, who is unkind towards neighbor or in the village to the peasants, or in the order of sitting, by virtue of authority imposes heavy tribute and various illegal taxes, or falsely accuses anyone, or deceives, or betrays someone, or causes slavery of innocent, guile or violence or buys cheaply into bondage, or drives chicanery or unearned profit or interest for inn-keeping and various cunning contrivance, and unjustly accumulation on percentage or extortions, and in all sorts of obscene things. Host, whose all gains and income is not from business, but from Evil and by God not forgiven, and by people cursed. Only hope is with the mercy of the Lord who gives it to truly repentant and even forgives terrible sins. 02041201
2. "Domostroi" represents a powerful layer of folk, consumer and civic culture of the Russian people. 02041202
3. The author of the special edition of "patriarchal despotism" was the priest of the Moscow Cathedral of the Annunciation, a member of the Chosen Council Sylvester (? - Approx. 1566), who left the message and instruction to her beloved and only son Anthimus who served in the royal customs (associated with kind people, and pursued large trade with many foreigners and was shown much friendship and given good things). During his life, the pope of Annunciation, with kind people who lived without any lies, not proud, not wealth, and yes true love, taught many to read, paint icons, taught silver art and other crafts, but also was attached to the trade deals. "Lovelier be righteous in misery than in the unrighteous mammon, - Sylvester testimonies the truth of Scripture and continues: - Do not judge anyone of anything, but ponder, how they could get rid of their sins; What you do not love to be done to you, do not do to others. In trade, be courteous, for spiritually harmful is good for nothing. In your trade be courteous, and self be content, with kind words you will do justice to the salary paid to you by the tsar." 02041203
4. Everyday details of life in the "Domostroi" sanctified moral attitudes of divine truths. Blessed money becomes a symbol of a righteous life. Economy spiritualized ethics, but the foundation is zhivot lives, that is their property, agriculture, material forms of embodiment of life. Because home and cattle - also cattle or beast - never are just cattle or livestock. 02041204
5. These are the fundamental properties of existence and consciousness of Russian human being of the XV- XVI centuries, allowing strong forms of management by type of natural life to enter the new foundation of its existence - to the beginnings of mercantile capitalism. These principles of national labor consisted of more sustainable methods of agriculture, industry, a lively trade in grain, fat, flax, furs, in the organization of the first factories and processing of raw materials into finished products which are in demand in rural and urban markets. 02041205
6. By the end of XVI., for example, in Tula traders comprised 44% of all residents, and together with the artisans - 70%. In Moscow, for every 2-3 yard had one retail space [97; 74]. 02041206
1. Initial century of Russian autocratic reign of Ivan the Terrible ended with large-scale economic crisis. If the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe was associated with the heyday of the craft, industry and cities, the agrarian Russia with about 60 years of the XVI century walked into a wave of social upheaval and economic ruin. The coming to power of the new Romanov dynasty (1613) was followed by waves of intervention, the Polish - in Moscow and Sweden - in Novgorod boyars strife and peasant uprisings. Descriptions scribes 20-30-ies of the XVII century testify of the huge amount of desolation of barely populated areas with patches of land in the midst of plowed fallow deposits and arable land staying wooded [52; 483 ]. 03010001
2. Time of Troubles interregnum and political intervention broke down to buckles of States, Russia was transformed into a shapeless, restless federation, but national and religious affiliations were not undermined. 03010002
3. With the pacification of Russia, the most acute question of social class affiliation of subjects of the new European monarchy emerged. 03010003
4. Hereditary differences in the rights and responsibilities of people were separated into classes, are differentiated by nature of public institution, unlike castes by religious institutions, and classes with different natural conditions of employment, the value of the property, the quality of property, education, role in social production. 03010004
5. In Russia, the class formed by the will of public authorities and according to social and specific elements yielded to the princely and royal power, leading to period of autocracy. 03010005
6. Ancient Rus before Moscow era under migration civilization did not know legally organized estates with different classes of their rights and responsibilities. Unfree and dependent status (slaves purchased, hirelings) established by private law and custom: as fathers, so do we behave; established not by us, not by us incessantly. Princely retinue remained content with the habits of the prince, who shared with her their treasury, clothed and fed them. Boyars and servitors were associated with Prince by personal agreement (agreement, contract) which provides for the right out and devoid of any corporate aspirations. Even the princes till second period were not sedentary. 03010006
7. In medieval Europe, with strong ties to the land people had sought to ensure individual rights by achieving corporate privileges in ceaseless unions to deal with royal authority in obtaining charters defining the rights and obligations of the estates. 03010007
8. Moscow period, which is closely connected with the history of education Russian estates, initiated the enslavement of free people for reasons of general public benefit. Cross-cutting features of social estates became the country's history, and the universality of bondage state taxes, fragmentation of estates, the lack of citizen society. 03010008
9. The purpose of autocratic rule during the Golden Yoke was the desire revenge khans, to achieve independence after the overthrow of the yoke, to unite the Russian lands, access to the sea, necessary for the domestic trade. Moscow princes sought to lifetime service of boyars rule them as serving payers of taxes and duties. Ivan III prohibits departure of serving people under pain of criminal punishment. With suspected of wanting to leave and take records in which the serviceman gives, kissing the cross, gives the promise that he does not drive off from the prince, will not communicate with his enemies, and will serve him straight around to the end of his lifetime. The possession, the land becomes a consequence of faithful service to the prince. 03010009
10. In Moscow period were different also the conditions of land tenure. Each serviceman received estate patrimony, for the income from which he had to fulfil his state service (serve with the estate). Allotment not only replaced the cash salary, but also had the character of participation in tax payment, which serviceman could not avoid. Nobleman was not supposed to leave the estate except under threat of being beaten and taking away the estate property. By the first half of the XVII century, according to some researchers, estates accounted for about 60% of all privately owned land [52; 560 ]. 03010010
11. So gradually formed a social class, responsible for all tax paying, as opposed to other estates, paying taxes and performing their duties connected with land, trades and crafts. Subject to taxation were tax communities of black land and courts. Government taxes were determined indiscriminately, for the whole area, and for their layout on individual taxpayers engaged the community itself, being responsible for the entire amount of taxes and forced to pay also for tax-evading people. It is because the community was petitioned by the authorities to stringent measures for payment of taxes and obligations connected with them. 03010011
12. Legal rights and responsibilities of black tenements as a single tax paying communities were identified in the Ulozhenie codex of 1649. According to this document, the members of the community, Posad members were ranked for taxation on the basis of ownership of townsmen of the court, state of marriage, maid or widow, the availability of trade, manufacturing and related activities. Simultaneously with tyaglo tax, in cities in XVI-XVII centuries obrok payment for rents existed [20; 212]. 03010012
13. Serfdom, public and private, had become an inevitable consequence of the general system of state taxes: taxes and services of various kinds, duties, dues on landlords and monastic lands. Official taxes were specifically ensured by the system of local land tenure, which secured landowners their ownership and delivered government aid to people at the rate prescribed in the Moscow Orders and discharges. Serfdom (non-free) was non-legitimized and only adopted by the State. This state of things, 'pravo', right, is ensured material means (= land and labor) to the landowner required to serve the emperor and deliver the duties lying on the peasants. 03010013
14. By the XVII century enslavement of rural and urban population in Russia had become a fait accompli. Even the right of Christian landowner in the Grand Duke of Law in 1497 (St. George's Day autumn) to refuse the ownership, which was an obvious limitation, particularly in narodopravstva (folk justice) of Novgorod and Pskov, later became regarded as a privilege. The fact of attachment of the peasants to the land turned into a private power of one class over the people of another class of people. The system of service duty covered more than half of the government budget of the peasant time. Obrochnik, tax payer in urban settlement, had to bring significant portion of its products to the market for the payment of taxes and dues. Peasants were paid net cash or in kind for serving different works in favor of the landlord, from cleaning floors to cutting and delivering firewood and water. 03010014
15. In the serf population attitude to work changed, one might urge: why do I need to work for the other, better I will not do anything or work at low pressure. 03010015
16. But if rural communities were paying uniform taxes for the land itself as a major factor of production, the income of urban communities was treated in very diverse ways. However, in the existing system of state law guest who traded with the Hanseatic League, Constantinople or Persia, being called industrialist, was treated as bachelor with sandals woven for him yesterday [13; 216]. 03010016
17. As a result, the imposition of public service obligations and to ensure proper operation of serving a particular area in a particular community has had the effect of limiting personal freedom of taxpaying people. The population was limited to the right of movement, free choice of occupation, relocation and transition to another social class. Everyone had to bear the tax imposed on him by the state, and serve there, where his tyagly plot (land, yard, estate) was situated, and he could not leave it so that land would remain empty. Town population, in line with the estate tax, paid, urban type of taxes, on yard, workshop, shop, commercial activity. Neither was exempted from state taxes and duties the church property, including the monastery lands which peasants had attributed to them. 03010017
18. Service class defined dignity, rights, benefits, and proximity to the emperor. Thus, the service class obtained exclusive privilege of owning the Local and patrimonial lands subject to ban of individuals delivering it to other estates: land should not be out of service. Peasants, initially assigned to the lands by voluntary agreement with the owners, later occurred, except in common, also to private serfdom. Urban inhabitants (commoners), with the right to manufacturing and trading industries, was deprived of opportunities to enter the civil service. Nobility was exempt of other taxes and duties, except service taxes, not collected when serving in the wars or anti-government riots ("God grant our sovereign possibility to serve and sword from the scabbard not remove"). 03010018
19. In the XVII century, not without the influence of an accomplished feat of Kuzma Minin ( ? -1616), butcher and elected mayor of Nizhny Novgorod Zemsky appointed treasurer of the national militia troops, in Muscovy formed a special merchant class. It included the following ranks:
20. After the victory of the people's militia K.Z. Minin was awarded the title of Duma nobleman. His name, like Prince D.I. Pozharsky entered the folk memory that historically valuable wealth and distinction. 03010020
1. In the beginning of this new period of time after the completion of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) formed the European states, whose power got stronger after the Peace of Westphalia used industry and trade in their countries for political purposes, to catch a patronizing policy. Communication with the same governments spiritual authority did not add them to the authority, because the loss of confidence in the Roman Catholic Church was growing. In philosophical and general literature of this period, and then in the aftermath of the French Revolution (1789), there was an apparent desire for a completely new organization both secular and spiritual power. Protestantism, systematized in England, spread throughout Europe, together with the spirit of individualism characteristic of this doctrine and essentially meeting the needs of the time: the unanimous desire of the peoples of Europe to the liberation of labor and providing a wide scope for personal initiative of citizens. 03020001
1. Following the example established in the XVI century Genoa and Barcelona banks, in the XVII century there are new public (state-owned) banks: Amsterdam (1600), Hamburg and Venice (1619), Stockholm (1661), English (1694). A characteristic feature of these banks became forced local merchants to put in them the means of payment (bank money) and make payments to each other by bank means in order to strengthen banks and, where possible, to replace cash. 03020101
2. However, in the reported period weakened the sense of justice and duty, individualism encouraged national self-interest and private greed, the desire for isolation and hostility, although science and industry, to acquire independent meaning within it stimulated new forms of moral behavior. 03020102
3. Individualism was expressed primarily in looking at money as the only private individual wealth. This view was entirely tolerated and the state as a mere collection of individual interests. The state is rich when there is a lot of money; hence all efforts should be directed to the greatest possible accumulation of money in the country in general and precious metals, being easily converted into cash. Principle 'buy from foreigners less than sell' gives difference in silver and gold makes it possible to have a cash advantage in foreign trade by bringing coins from abroad and holding them in the country. 03020103
4. In natural harmony identifying wealth with money appeared and gained a decisive influence around the middle of the XVII century the mercantile system. Government encouraged to take full measures to ensure that the trade balance was favorable: ban the importation of goods; establish high duties on imports; prohibit or restrict the export of precious metals; assign premium on export of goods of their factories. Taken to be generally possible to settle for what is produced within the state; in any case, one should not buy more from foreigners than sell them, because it would mean self becoming poor and enriching the others. 03020104
5. Mercantilist doctrine arose in connection with the extensive development of Europe's monetary circulation after opening the New World. Money European governments were required to maintain standing armies; grew palace costs; unreasonably increased the number of civil servants. Prosperity of the domestic industry has helped authorities successfully achieve political domination and influence on the formation of the world economy and trade, for which the new arena was opened to form colonies. The colony of this period were considered as estates, which are intended to benefit the metropolis in order to recover additional government revenue. Colonies were strictly forbidden to trade with other countries: this right belonged to the metropolis. Trade treatises became the main subject of diplomatic concerns to prevent the global market to foreign competitors. 03020105
1. "We have to win our nation's industry and win them to our taste" - thought the French finance minister under Louis XIV, Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), supporter of mercantilism, "to do the trick to put other countries on the world market in the same economic dependence of France, as was a French village dependent of the city." 03020201
2. JB Colbert improved the financial system, improved French fleet and means of communication, facilitated the rise of the domestic industry and trade through state loans, bonuses and privileges. During his time it was founded the Academy of Sciences, inscriptions and architecture; established the Council of National Economy, which absorbed to its membership the best representatives of commercial and industrial estate; were built castles of Versailles, the Louvre and Saint-Germain. 03020202
3. Another major practitioner mercantile system in Europe became O. Cromwell (1599-1658), is compatible, on Marx's definition, in one person of Robespierre and Napoleon English bourgeois revolution. O. Cromwell went down in history as the author of the Navigation Act, marked the beginning of British naval supremacy. This law established the most severe trade rules:
4. Adam Smith called the act of Cromwell "wisest of all the trade laws of England", pointing to the national enmity, as one of the motives of the Navigation Act. National interests of the mercantilists were in the foreground, cosmopolitanism was alien to them. 03020204
5. Despite the restoration of monarchy in England, Cromwell's act was repealed and acted for two centuries. France owes its policy of Colbert flourishing trade and manufacturing industries, which struck Europe at the time, and the conversion of England in the first-class maritime and trading nation is primarily due to the Navigation Act of Cromwell. 03020205
6. Theorists of mercantilism, representing the dominant form of economic thinking in the XVII, disagreed with the practices on the main issue, limit or even prohibit the export of coins out of the country, for the oppression of export of money prevents the development of trade. "Money is like a seed that farmer throwing to the ground, as it scatters, but for autumn gets back in the form of abundant harvest." said Thomas Man, in whose works (editions 1621 and 1664) for the first time England had a clear and systematic exposition of the theory of the trade balance, as well as an opinion on the value of the money supply: it is not convenient to have coins more than require the prices of commodities. Export of money does not reduce the number of them in the country, but rather serves as a means to increase it. For example, the development of production of thin tissues is far the best means to be able to buy goods from foreigners who do not spend their own money than the prohibition of export of money from the country. 03020206
7. Whatever mercantilist theorists argued, but in the XVII century gold and silver really poured into England, Holland, France, where it developed industry and foreign trade, and went away from Spain, which experienced an economic decline. 03020207
1. At that time, there was the first systematic treatise on the subject of political economy, penned by Antoine de Mont-Chretien (1575-1621). He first used the term political economy, favoring his work in government control over the industry and condemning free trade, practiced by the governments of Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands only for their own destruction. 03020301
2. Originator of classical bourgeois political economy William Petty (1623-1687) first proposed the labor theory of value. Unlike the mercantilists, who considered the leading resource and capital factor of social reproduction W. Petty considered labor as creating wealth factor, the father of wealth and land its mother. Petty disapproved regulation of economic initiatives and interest rate, opposed any government intervention in industrial production. 03020302
1. To the creators of a more radical theory than mercantilism belongs Deadley North, author of the first whole doctrine of free trade. His book North published in 1691, calling his remarks paradoxes. Soon afterwards this work was banned, disappearing throughout the XVIII century being reissued in 1822 only. 03020401
2. Here are a few paradoxes of D. North, forming the core of his theory of world trade:
3. Source of wealth D. North, after W. Petty, believed to be human labor, attached to the cultivation of the land, or to industries. The amount of money, and its suitability for the purpose of trade, changes depending on various circumstances and is regulated spontaneously. Abundance of an object on the market makes it cheaper. Stagnation in trade arises not from a lack of money supply but from the overflow of the internal market in goods or disorders in foreign trade, or from falling demand. Appointment of interest rate must be provided free on agreement between parties, for its size, as the prices of all goods, depends on supply and demand. 03020403
4. Deadley North appeared closest to the views expressed almost 80 years later by his compatriot Adam Smith. 03020404
5. The most curious and unexplained fact in the biography of D. North, one of the world's first Free Traders, is his long stay in Russia, where English businessmen and trade people still enjoyed favors and where the scientist with a sensitive heart caught two moral warnings. First, individuals often make their self-interest measure of all kind of good and very willingly would deprive others any right to buy and sell; any benefit provided by whatever private interest or industry or trade is unfair from the social standpoint. Secondly, all trades are profitable, otherwise there would be no calculation to deal with them; where the industry is booming, also there is welfare of the nation. 03020405
1. An important consequence of the troubled years has become a visible presence in Moscow life of foreign officers and soldiers, professionals, technicians European masters and merchants. In the words of historian S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), they have become familiar to every Russian. German scholar Adam Oleary Holstein (1599-1671), who visited in the middle of the XVII century Moscow, counted up to a thousand Lutherans and Calvinists who served and traded there. "Whatever feelings they aroused in the Orthodox people - concludes S.F. Platonov - Orthodox people still had to comprehend that they had simply no future without these foreigners." 03030001
2. It took many years to restore the economic life after the years of anarchy. Brutal damage caused by years of turmoil in Russian state, the figures illustrate the Moscow kingdom population: about 1500 - 5.8 million people; 1550 - 8.8 million people; 1600 - 11.3 million people; 1650 - 11.3 million people. 03030002
3. As you can see, half a century of turmoil and the ensuing chaos, the population did not change in size, which indicates its huge loss. Over the years farmland depreciated, deserted land decreased in value; peasant labor, on the contrary, became more appreciated. Rose in price also loans, which farmers needed. As a result of hereditary enslavement of peasants their representatives were no longer present after 1613 on the Zemsky Sobor (Russian parliament). From the free society vanished almost the entire rural population of Russia, at least 90% [60; 103]. 03030003
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| 18. The Calling of Mikhail Romanov. Tapestry mosaic |
1. Alienation from European culture and age-old customs consecration marked the end of the XVI century in Russia. First the new kings of the Romanov dynasty - Mikhail Fedorovich (1596-1645) and Alexei Mikhailovich (1629-1676), represented the conservative sustainable direction, contrary to religious radicalism. Mikhail Fedorovich, smooth and quiet supreme ruler, no frills were tolerating and he was in Moscow perhaps the only man completely sober, non-smoker, and tolerating no drinking. He guarded the royal treasury thriftily as his own. 03030101
2. The candidacy of Mikhail Romanov as tsar on the big Zemsky Sobor advanced, as you know, Don Ataman, he was supported by servicemen and townspeople. Accession of Mikhail Fedorovich symbolized the triumph of the nobility and the urban commercial bourgeoisie: these estates defended private property, freedom of entrepreneurship, ie bourgeois path of development of Russia, like the Lutheran and Calvinist reformers in Europe. 03030102
3. With the pacification of Russia resumed also course of trade, just busier in the directions on the Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan. Import from abroad was forbidden only of grain spirits, which were since Ivan III state monopolies and tobacco from China, smoking being strictly forbidden in time of Mikhail Fedorovich. But first ambassador to the Altyn Khan Mongolian Vasily Starkov brought in 1638 to Russia tea as a gift to the king. Notable step in the foreign trade was a sharp restriction of the import of tar: it was not allowed to be imported without sovereign decree. The argument of the first Romanov was that foreigners are trafficking raw hemp as tar and use it as tar on ropes and rope business in Russia stops and soon to feed the poor people would be nothing. 03030103
4. The young king ably supported rivalry between foreign merchants, in particular, two of rivalling foreign merchants, in particular, two of the largest trading nations - the British and the Dutch. "The Dutch, like locusts attacked Moscow and take the bred from the mouth of the British - reported home Englishman Collins. - They are much more numerous, richer than English, avoiding no means to achieve their goals and find their way everywhere, where some advantage is available. Inavailab they are better treated than the British, because they bring gifts to the boyars and thus gain their patronage. "In turn, the Dutch resident in Russia II. Massa wrote in his report that "the princes of Moscow know the truth about the trade with the British, of which over 50 years the king had received no benefits, whereas from the Dutch they annually receive considerable sums in customs." 03030104
5. To the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich occurs the emergence of the manufacturing business, which was based on the tradition of small-scale production and appeared as an organic, historically conditioned process. In 1649 trade privileges, bestowed by Ivan the Terrible, of the English merchants were abolished. 03030105
6. Important role in the development of entrepreneurship played the transition to Arab numerical system, as the old Russian digital system, borrowed at the time of the Byzantine Empire, was very uncomfortable: for each discharge units, tens and hundreds had their own special lettering. Tens of thousands, for example, was called the darkness, and the hundreds of thousands, rarely used in contemporary business practice, wearing the characteristic name of nevednya (unknown). 03030106
7. In Russia there cloth printing (fixing colors produced using pigments mixing with vegetable oils), is spreading. Compositions of Russian figures consisting of flowers sunflower, cornflower and blackberry mutually connected to tow branches, decorated with rich foliage. 03030107
8. It is just these crucial years in the country's economy that are opening, according to V.O. Kliuchevskii, another period of Russian history as a new moment of colonization - the period of all the Russians, imperial-nobility period of serfdom, agricultural and factory farms, a period of consolidation of territories, their entry into Russia. 03030108
9. Romanov accession to the throne after the Troubles marked split in Russian Orthodox Church, which began on the free movement of Novgorod land Strigolniki (1382-1427), who dared to cut the sacred beard and mustache. It was the type of the first free Russian thinkers and writers, not renouncing Orthodox fasting and prayer, but boldly condemning bribery and bordels among contemporary clergy. They did not recognize the right of pastors to be mediators between God and men, and saw in these only ordinary people infected with human vices (these teachers are drunkards, go among and drink with drunkards). Religious radicalism, not out of shape in orthodoxy, preaching democratic church, devoid of greed and a special dignity of priests, then moved to Moscow and other Russian centers, trying to raise the spiritual side of religion in general. 03030109
10. Autocratic will of the Russian tsar (and before him, the Grand Duke of All Russia) did not heed any legal rules set over his power. The king did not share his sovereign rights with any estate in the land. Not only was prohibited the transfer of the commercial and industrial townsmen to other estates, but also the transition from one to another tenements. The main occupation of the masses of the Russian population, also of townspeople, remains agriculture in the absence of any tolerable means of transportation. Russian commercial and industrial people under the rule of the feudal socio-economic system lacked strength to compete with rich foreign companies. 03030110
11. Nevertheless, the idea of Muscovite Russia as a state exclusively agricultural, having almost no trade is mistaken. Riga merchant de Rhodes, who visited Moscow in 1653, remarked: 03030111
12. "All decisions in this country are focused on commerce and bargaining; everytbody here, from the highest to the lowest, only thinks, just works, in terms of cash. In this regard, the Russian nation is much more active than all the others put together." 03030112
13. Another traveler of XVII., Kielburger shows: 03030113
14. "All the inhabitants of Moscow, from the noblest to the last, like trade; there are more stores in Moscow than in Amsterdam or even in a whole other country. For each type of goods, from the best to the worst, there are special streets and markets"[59; 87-88]. 03030114
15. Apparently, such judgments had given Engels (1820-1895) the cause to declare that "after Russian merchant three Jews have nothing to do" [65; 148]. 101 03030115
1. In order to promote steel production in the military interests of Russia, foreign helpers were invited. Dutchman Andrew Vinius ( ? - Approx. 1652), having performed large grain trade in Arkhangelsk, in 1632 received a government loan and began construction of house and metallurgy complexes in Tula and Kashira plants, pledging to prepare for the Treasury for cheaper prices cannons, cannon balls, gun barrels, muskets. So were based first armories that have, in 1648, come to the possession of F. Akemi and P. Marselis. In 1646 A. Vinius was elevated to nobility for his achievements in metallurgy. To the plants whole parish was assigned and the beginning of the social category factory peasants was adopted. Until Vinius in Russia in industrial applications was used iron, purchased in Sweden, at an expensive price. Tula plant started the first mass use of cheaper Russian iron. By the beginning of the XVIII century in Russia, there were about a dozen of these plants. 03030201
2. In 1644 the company headed by the Hamburg merchant Peter Marselis (? -1672), who settled in Russia in 1629 with his sons Leontien and Christian were granted the right to the construction of ironworks in Kostroma in the county of Olonetsk on Vahe river, and at Sheksna. Marselis, according to prominent Russian economists of historical school IM Kulisher (1878-1934), delivered to the treasury 20 thousand pounds pig iron and connected iron, 5 thousand of forged boards, six thousand of cores, 20 guns on prices appointed by the Treasury. In factories Marselis had three furnaces and ten horns [59; 90]. 03030202
3. The son-in-law of Marselis, F. Akemy, ore producer and industrialist from Holland brought several hundred masters, casters, locksmiths, riflemen, taught Russian artisans in new skills and no mastery of them could not be hided: this turned to foreigner to an indispensable duty. Akemy plants supplied to the treasury tin, wire, guns, and other ore products. 03030203
4. Production of guns in Russia soon became so great that they even produced for export. In particular, for the Netherlands, according to Academician S.G. Strumilin, in 1646, 600 guns were exported. 03030204
5. In 1635, "gun master" Elisei Koet, Swede in the service of the Russian sovereign, received a letter of concession from Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich to purchase sixteen desyatine of wasteland in the Moscow district "for the construction of glass factory and right to sell products duty-free for fifteen years and a ban for others to arrange similar institutions" [73; 109]. 03030205
6. For the whole of the XVII century similar companies in Russia arose no more than thirty [65; 20], they used the labor of bonded peasants, dependent of the state, which required them to work for foreign entrepreneurs. 03030206
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| 19. The Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin complex Thumbnail Chronicle XVI century |
7. Organization of production lagged behind the European level. Of Muscovite Russia, in accordance with the manners of subsistence farming, it was the habit to pay salaries not fully in money, but to a certain part in products, "Smith Trofimka Antonov makes all sorts of different small business; he is given ten altyn copper a day, and additionally a quarter of peck and a pound of salt annually" [59; 90]. 03030208
1. In the quietest of character of Alexei Mikhailovich contemporaries noted manifestations of softness and tenderness "in anger he did not go further than kick or punch" [74; 39]. First Romanovs become active participants in transactions in the domestic and foreign markets of Russia. 03030301
2. A school for the training of skilled and experienced craftsmen in the field of Russian ore business and metal created lord B.I. Morozov (1590-1662), educator and friend of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, co-author of law collection "Ulozhenie". At his factory Pavlovsk, near Moscow, Morozov constructed watermill for iron forge. Foreign experience this entrepreneur used in industrial enterprises of Nizhny Novgorod their estates, which produced potash (pot + ash) for export. This white granular powder was used in the manufacture of glass, liquid soap, in dyeing. All these production developed rapidly in Europe, and of England in 1608 was banned by law export of unpainted woolen goods; experienced dyer called from Holland, taught English in this art, until coloring fabrics was thoroughly protected by monopoly. Foreigners generally preferred to every other Russian potash because of its high quality; and, to recall the merchants themselves the potash of Morozov for its better preparing. 03030302
3. In the XVII century became widespread the experience of investing in domestic commercial and industrial capital in the production, as evidenced by the creation in Moscow Bolshoi cloth merchants yard group headed by V. Schegolin, base cloth factory in Kazan major employer M. Miklyaev "with fellow" business linen and stationery factories in Yaroslavl merchant I. Zatrapeznov, creation of large enterprises for the production of cloth and canvas in the Kaluga district by local merchant Goncharov, great-grandfather of A.S. Pushkin's wife [65; 23]. 03030303
4. But more significant in size and passion were industrial operations of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In practice, the king was not at quietest but adventurous, expansive, not permitted deferrals, with exceptional business acumen. Perseverance of the sovereign aroused public enterprise. 03030304
5. First Romanov dynasty kings at their own expense carried out trade with Persia. The main import items were raw silk as a matter of state monopoly and Indian goods. In Persia they exported furs, European goods and some agricultural products. 03030305
6. In 1667, Alexis, pursuing financial benefit in trade with Persia finally gave the rights to the Armenian trading company. Persian goods were flooding to Western Europe through Turkish Armenia and Asia Minor, in spite of the serious religious differences with Turkey [97; 58]. Royal treasury released from the hands an important channel for remittances. 03030306
7. Commercial and merchant theme, the theme of trips of merchants across the country prominently declared itself in literature. In place of heroes, the urge to unceasing prayer, pious night vigil to petty jobs in homes, come proactive leaders in different areas of life - from agriculture and commerce to politics and culture. 03030307
8. In addition to potash business in suburban villages of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich located manufacturing business of iron and brick dressing, lime and salt works, glass, leather, silk, velvet and morocco production. Many actions of the sovereign, according to contemporaries, showed naive confidence of Alexei Mikhailovich, "to technically almost omnipotence of comprehensive master foreigner", of whom he expected "all sorts of curiosities and tricks that are not found in Muscovy." Among the outlandish tricks of the king we find an attempt to make gardens and even cotton plantation near Moscow with the aim of planting in Russia silk and cotton industries. And the father of Peter the Great (1672-1725) instructed to send abroad for "masters such skillful to do something so that all the birds were singing and bowed and walked and talked like they do in a comedy" or "tunnelers that were able to build a tunnel under the river, and for the lake and through the mountains of stone, and up the hill, and through the water " [59; 91]. Tunnelers were found in Europe and in Russia only in the next century 03030308
1. So, the first steps towards Europeanization Russia made, expanding pre-existing enterprise in cloth, steel, cannon, creating with the help of Western masters and in new industries - silk, glass, paper. 03040001
2. Trade in this period becomes a monopoly of trade tenements and its top - large merchants, institutionalized in hundreds of new trade and partnership. Growing merchant supplanted with the internal market of the direct producer: in the commercial charter of 1649 appears the requirement for farmers selling their barns and stalls, salt works tributary trade and townsmen people "so that unemployed people and peasants, except retail and unemployed would not continue to possess only and not produce anything" [59; 91]. 03040002
1. This requirement caused a marked increased in the XVII century Trade in agricultural products, coupled with the development of new fertile lands south and east, with the emergence of a number of fishing areas, produce their bread, and urban growth. In connection with the development of commodity production strengthened commodity-money relations in the country. Many farmers in their spare time doing field work in crafts, manufacturing cloth, clothes, shoes, kitchen utensils, agricultural implements, etc. In the countryside, as well as in the cities, there is a huge network of small markets and shops. In the XVII century appeared the lot of small artisans. 03040101
2. Despite the prohibition in the "Cathedral code" of 1649 of charging interest, in practice this prohibition was avoided: recorded in loan document the sum of loan just by interest percent higher [65; 13]. 03040102
3. The government, trying to impose a tax on all traders in the treasury, during the XVII century led the fight against trafficking and outside the ranks against peddling trade. But regulation of trade based on private property interests, on private property, was the law of value, but because despite repeated prohibitions, according to I.M. Kulisher "on paper level one could buy rope and tubs to horse stalls, squirrel fur, in the vegetable - wax or ivory, in hardware - belts and more» [59; 92]. Many traders chose for themselves comfortable, more profitable place: commercial establishments were individually owned. 03040103
4. In the context of a unified national market highly mutated form of trade fairs, having direct influence on the development of the shipbuilding and seafaring. One of the main attractions was Archangel, built in the last quarter of the XVI century and soon turned into a continuously operating shopping center. There are dozens of British, Dutch, Hamburg and other ships with goods from Western countries. Many merchants from northern and central cities of Russia moved here permanently. Goods transported by water to Vologda, from Vologda also winter sleigh rides were arranged to Yaroslavl, Rostov, Moscow and other cities. In the winter, Russian goods were brought to Vologda by Russian merchants to be send in spring and summer on ships in Arkhangelsk. In the 60 years of the XVII century there was a project of the channel connecting the White Sea through the Volga with Moscow for the implementation of transit trade between West and East. 03040104
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| 20. City of Archangel, 17th century |
1. After the defeat of Kazan and Astrakhan khanates conquest of the largest shopping center becomes Nizhny Novgorod - stowage for trading just east of Russia. Makarevs - old Coy Fair, founded in 1525, is now assigned to the role of a mediator between the main shopping European Russia and Siberia. Mikhail Fedorovich in 1641 approved the Tsar's right to collect fees for trading in their territories to Makarevsky monastery, one of the most respected in Russia. Far from the holy Macarius near Vetlugi was the City of Kitezh, where in late June, thousands of pilgrims flocked to the great Kitezhsky night. At the same time took place here also most active trade fairs. 03040201
2. A major center of European Russia and Siberia, not only, but with Bukhara and China, becoming the first half of the XVII century Irbitsko Fair, near Verkhoturye. 03040202
3. In a large and populous commercial city, which attracts Persians, Tatars, Bukhara, Indians, Armenians converted Astrakhan. Having visited Astrakhan Baron Mayerberg, author of "Travel to Muscovy," concludes with words: 03040203
4. "After 3,000 miles of the Volga River connects its water brought eternal union with her lord unchanged, the Caspian Sea, and even giving them a fortune. Because to send Armenians, Medes, Parfait, Persians and Hindus it brings entrusted her precious Russian sable, marten, ermine and lynx. And takes for them having different fabrics: linen, cotton and silk, gold and silver brocade, carpets, raw silk, painted in different colors, rubies, turquoise and pearls, rhubarb, hardened blades in Persia and drove the courts reverse it all by running meet her rivers Oka and Moscow, even in the capital Moscow of Russia " [59; 92-93 ]. 03040204
5. But if the government of a new dynasty would seek guidance in church affairs to the Eastern Greek, the technical and military means - to the West, then hundreds of thousands of Russian people, service people, commercial and industrial, after Yermak rushed to the rock to open in Siberia, as expressed in the XVII century, different gifts and wonders of nature - new natural forms and types, untrodden land with huge ranges, with majestic rivers, new breeds of animals and plants, unseen rocks or minerals, unfamiliar peoples and languages. That is enabled by something that prevailed already before Peter I, the principle of freedom of employment, the right to engage everyone unquestioned. 03040205
6. Single all-Russian market with its center in Moscow, trade related to all the cities grows Siberia, and from 1654 - and Little Russia, reunited with Moscow. 03040206
7. Large settlements were quickly founded, became cities: Tomsk (1604), Eniseisk (1620), Yakutsk (1632). Geografus and architect, Tobolean SU Remezov (c. 1662-1720) in the rays of the all-seeing eye of Gospel drew a nice semicircle over Siberian cities and forts: Tyumen, Tara Pelym, birch, Surgut, Narym, Ket, Kuznetsk, Selenga, Argun. And below 'giant steel', eminent hail of Tobolsk, East Gate, eve of Snowfall Reaver Lukomorya sultry and Asia. Hence the expedition went on Ataman Perfiliev Vitim and Shilka, Poyarkova in Yakutia, Habarov in the Amur River to the Pacific Ocean, Dezhnev in Kolyma and the Arctic Ocean. Semyon Dezhnev (long before Bering) belongs the honor of the greatest geographical discoveries after Columbus, namely the opening of the Strait, which separates the old and new world. 03040207
1. Ways to promote Russian entrepreneurs in the East are reflected in the diagram. Trailblazers penetrated into Siberia and along the northern seas. One of the brave became Semyon Dezhnev (c. 1605-1673), a native of Great Ustyug. He carried the state service in Tobolsk, then Lena, Yakutsk, and in 1648 went with F. Alekseev (Popov) from the mouth of the Kolyma River to the Pacific Ocean, rounded the Chukchi Peninsula and discovered the strait between Asia and America. It will be unknown to anyone Strait reaches the mouth of the Anadyr, losing ships and comrades. Dezhnyov build a cabin and settled in the new land until 1659. Way back at Lena takes three years. In September 1664 in Moscow Dezhnyov receive salary, rank Cossack Ataman and a certain amount for giving wealth to the royal palace - walrus tusks and furs. For years of service Dezhnyov delivered for sovereign's treasury 280 pounds of fish tooth for 60 rubles, for pounds and furs with income to treasury at 17340 rubles. By the time the amount was equivalent to the value of 300 thousand tons of rye, or 530,000 pounds of oats. For 19 years the expedition treasury owed Dezhnevo wounds received 20, 128 rubles 50 kopecks. This value seemed to the Siberian department so great that officials decided to check it in the great sovereign Alexei Mikhailovich. Autocrat acknowledged the debt. A year from the Treasury supported Dezhnev for 5 rubles in money, 5 buckets of rye and oats 4 buckets. 03040301
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| 21. Economic development of Russian in 17th century |
1. Another Ustyuzhanin, merchant Yerofei Pavlovich Habarov (c. 1610- after 1667), a native of Pomorie, nicknamed Svyatitsky in 1628 with his brother Nicephorus moved for the Ural Mountains, reached Mangasey. Lena organized team of seven years trades beast gets to his feet. In 1649 earnings for the first organized hike in the Amur region - Dauriy, drawing up the river Amur. Summoned to Moscow, Khabarovsk from Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich son receive the title 'seigniorial', but that honor will not save him from jail for failing to pay debts on the second campaign in the Amur region. In 1667, the organization denied Khabarov third campaign of his own drawing, and entrepreneur finds repose in Khabarovka, the village he had founded. 03040401
2. Difficult fate did not stop pioneers, fur hunters, contacting local population and bringing it under the high sovereign's hand. 03040402
1. Officers, commercial and industrial Russian people are not only looking for profit in Siberia, sable, silver and gold-bearing ore, but also founded settlements, husbandry spread along the Yenisei and Lena, the factory in the West Siberian Altai part hop growing began in Siberia to plant tobacco, brought on Mangazeysky fair Chinese tea, searched unknown minerals. For example, in 1620 in the same district there were 249 Yenisei industrial people, predominantly from Zyryan and Komi. 03040501
2. In Acts 1666-1670 "On the ore and precious stones mining in Tobolsk Verkhoturye and counties" is mentioned a little-known name of copper ore smelter Dmitry Tumashev whose "brow beated for the great emperor" and denounced that "he went to Siberia to look ores, colored stone and searched in Dotterel mountains white, cherry and fatisy yuga green and yellow tunpasy"; asked the great sovereign "Welcome him, Dmitry enjoin release him from Moscow to Siberia to Verkhoturye for true mines of gold and silver ore and all uzorochny colored stones on their pritoryah and would ride him freely in Tobolsk and Verkhoturye counties." 03040502
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| 22. Sibir in 17th century |
3. D. Tumashev first opened Murzinsko gems, more than a century before the advent of the Urals brothers Tartarus. Entrepreneur also informed the king that he had found "emery stone, and the stone diamond fit for every case, and that the rock of mangled 10 pounds." Trailblazers reported on mineral discoveries not only in Moscow but also the Siberian magistrates: serviceman Grisha Shadrin sent five pounds of blue paint; Cossack Iwashko Fomin brought with him one and a half pounds of weight mica, and unnamed Cossack sent to River Hatanga to inspect fire-breathing mountain scored there ammonia, which also was required. 03040504
4. More likely from distant Siberia, having passed from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean in just 50 years, Moscow kings demanded for themselves or for the best selection of rare breed of excellent sable prescribed: in Mangazeysky area catch live good black sables so much and so also white sables [59; 88-89]. 03040505
1. One area of the emergence of large capital in Russia in XVII. continues to be the production and trade of salt. Famous trading house Stroganoff, appeared in the early XV in. (about 1430 Varnitsy already smoked them on the riverbank Usolki and settlement on the site of the Permian Komis Villages originally called Kama Salt and subsequently Solikamsky), stamped first in the production of salt, and then develops an iron forge and industries of furs, fish production. 03040601
2. Arts and crafts focused around guests, the then major capitalist entrepreneurs. For example, at the expense of the guest Michael Guriev in Yaik the city of Guryev with fisheries, with the workers - pischevik: solelytsikami, curers, roe-handlers, assisted Merezhnikov, nevodschiki, carpenters, metalworkers and brickmaker. City on Yaik cost to its creator 289942 rubles 1 altyn 5 coins with all money altogether [59; 89]. 03040602
3. Usolye town on the Volga was the brainchild of another guest, Nadezhda Sweteshnikova, who organized there salt production. 03040603
4. Salt production technology improved with the help of special tools for drilling wells more than 100 meters. Salt production was concentrated in a few centers, salt transported across Russia, thereby contributing to the development of means of communication, the exchange between the territories. 03040604
5. When former guest Duma clerk Nazariy net salary after the abolition of the musketeers and revitalization of search arrears suggested the government to replace the most important direct taxes duty on salt, its price in 1646 increased fourfold. Salt was sold much less: thousands of pounds of cheap fish, constitutes the basis of the power of the poor in lean times, rotted on the banks of the Volga. Government had incurred losses and the initiator of the hydrochloric fee, Nazariy was killed in 1648 by the rebels. 03040605
6. A. Oleary said he witnessed the massacre of the Duma clerk who lived in the Kremlin and hided under the bath brooms was attacked by the mob in the house of the head of the government and the king's brother B.I. Morozov. "Mad people rushed into the house, pulled Nazariy out from under brooms, dragged him by feet down the stairs to the courtyard, stabbed him to death with sticks, and his head was broken so that he could no longer be recognized. Then threw him into the manure pit and raised over him Boxes "[70; 383]. 03040606
7. The Boyar BI Morozov himself was saved that day because fleeing from the house, but his magnificent palace in the Kremlin was spoiled, broken and property stolen by the mob. "They made up such a rage - demonstrates A. Oleary - which did not spare even the holy icons, usually highly revered by the mob, tore off their ornaments of pearls and precious stones, and then dumped on the yard" [70; 362]. 03040607
8. In early 1648, the salt tax was abolished. 03040608
9. But with increasing security in the center, north and north-east of the state, trade and fisheries are beginning to flood the villages and country side. On free development of trade and handicraft population, source and media businesses, the government, from a purely fiscal interests, puts obstacles restricting trade in certain points, mainly in urban areas, due to the inability to keep track of all transactions. The authorities tried to seize trade items. Novgorod boyars, for example, were charged by trade restrictions in relations with Sweden in the 20-ies. of XVII." It was commanded concerning the trade that people must pursued it in sveysky side and in the city, and not in villages and in the country side; and in our side the Russian trade with Swedish and German subjects is told to take place in Novgorod, Ladoga, and not in the villages and country side where we would suffer loss of duty" [18; 285-286 ]. Also free private circulation of furs was banned. 03040609
10. In the middle of the XVII century was carried out a nationwide campaign to replace balances in everyday life, new samples of which were instructed to be acquired in the treasury. 03040610
1. Active and reasonable measures in favor of the development of the productive forces of the Russian industrial population took A.L. Ordin-Nashtshokin (1605-1680) when he was the Pskov governor. To enable minor Russian merchants to act independently of foreigners to save them from having to go to moneylenders, to give them a loan, Ordin-Nashchokin offered minor manners that Pskov minor merchants manage their industry and trade, and money on these industries issue of the Zemstvo hut. In 1667, Ordin-Nashchokin suggested and led it to the New Commercial charter fulfilling the need to support the best minor tradespeople throughout Russia. Charter, for example, suggested how to resist outlandish merchants based in the domains of Russian merchants, ie by a kind of companies that Pskov merchants had as a matter of habit. This document allows foreigners to trade only in frontier ports, and on the domestic market, they were allowed only under special permits and payment of an additional fee in the driveway 10%. New Commercial Charter recorded the dramatic increase in customs duties to foreigners (7 - 8% to 20-21 %). In its Charter Ordin-Nashchokin offered one common measure that would exempt commercial and industrial population of all the cities of the autocratic Russian offices of many orders and would eliminate the influence on them of the governor. He developed a measure that would finish the job in one and a half years: finally merge commercial and industrial population of the whole country into a coherent whole, collect together the spilled temple and organize it to a single estate tax, which would be administered by a special institution, strong and independent enough to protect the townspeople governor from harassment and clerks. "For many portages in all orders, decent commercial people manage in a decent order - argued Ordin-Nashchokin, innovator under reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (definition of I.I. Dityatin) - where the great emperor tells his boyar; this would be the order for commercial people in all cities, a frontier stronghold against other states, and in all the cities of the provincial tax would protect and manage them. In the same one order to give the court and the council to commercial people against other ranks of people "[18; 144]. 03050001
2. First Russian economist (by definition of V.O. Kliuchevsky), the founder of practical businessmen Peter's time A.L. Ordin - Naschokin is considered to Westerners in the sense that his dream was to strengthen Russian influence in the Baltic and Moscow to get access to the Baltic Sea; It would happen for the attraction to the Gulf of Riga and the Western Dvina, not the Gulf of Finland and the Neva. European in Moscow clothes fought for the window to Europe on the Baltic Sea not for the sake of trade: this way was the most convenient in the Russian European culture. Ordin -Nashchokin who knew European languages, stayed sometimes in Paris and, presumably, communicated with French Finance Minister Colbert, argued to contemporaries: take the good and be not ashamed, in front, even of enemies. But not all is to be taken of someone else's indiscriminately: what do we care about foreign customs, their dress is not for us, and ours not them. Ordin-Nashchokin - one of those Westerners who wonder about what is possible and what not to borrow, who were looking for agreement and cooperation with the European culture of the national identity of the peoples of Russia. His diplomatic efforts to strengthen trade relations not only with its immediate neighbors, have access to the Baltic Sea, but also with our neighbors in the East, Persia and Central Asia, Khiva and Bukhara, India and China. 03050002
3. Above all the same "royal great seal of the great state and ambassadorial affairs Preserver" put the interests of Russia. Advised the king's better to be in alliance with the Poles than at enmity; the only way to achieve unification of all South Slavic tribes around Moscow and Poland. 03050003
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| 23. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin |
4. Familiarity with Western European economies and politics led Ordin-Nashchokin to understanding the major drawback of the Moscow government, aimed solely on exploitation of the masses, rather than the development of the productive forces of the country. National economic interests were sacrificed to the fiscal targets. Being well-educated political economists, the key factors of economic development he attributed government, whose practice significantly raised the old industrial estate in Pskov Province during the period Ordin-Nashchokin stayed there. In his economic program he championed for the creation of a large domestic industry and the development of agricultural production, especially grain farming. On Russian grain reserve goods, there was a big demand: Swedish Queen and the Netherlands States were willing to pay the Russian Tsar for grain even weapons. 03050005
5. Analyzing the shortcomings of domestic trade, Ordin-Nashchokin did not spare of criticism and spiritual properties the merchants themselves: there was weakness after weakness in the trade, that is, do not keep the word, not keep agreement and can not resist the foreigners. These shortcomings were amplified by ignorance and mistrust, lack of money capital, lack of an organized credit, fear of self-defense and cramped administration. 03050006
6. I will mention one remarkable fact. In Pskov many foreigners brought secretly burnt spirits and German beverages, thereby developing spirits beverages in inns. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin being voivod in Pskov, went against the state monopoly on the potion and brought instead of voluntary taverns, i.e. free trade in wine with the treasury board imposed a tax of two money on ruble and hryvnia. About Pskov was written: "What were: the hut tavern where any disorder in the stench and were, and now in those huts any grandeur fulfilled." But it was the last freestyle tavern on the Great Earth. On the contrary, the government with the 1660s. imposed a ban on "brownie" distilling that, as stated in the decree, "by corrupt court: inn-keepers were drinking and the treasury commandments were not followed." At the same penalty for 100 years, since 1680, the drinking increased profits with 325 thousand rubles up to 2500 rubles per year, which is almost 8 times [67; 115, 221-222 ]. 03050007
7. On Russian, according to foreigners still could affect flattery, bribery and vodka; Yet other means, such as fair rules, did not work as also not under Ivan the Terrible. 03050008
8. In the New Commercial charter, compiled by AL Ordin-Nashchokin, adopted in 1667, two years ahead of the Navigation Act of Cromwell was found expression about requirements of townspeople and merchants, contained in petitions, proposals by merchant P. Marselis experienced in competition with foreign capital in Pskov and implemented in Europe as mercantilist policy (strictly limiting foreign trade in the country, promoting export and import for the purpose of reducing the inflow of gold and foreign currency). Charter was signed by about 90 merchants, including 13 guests [33; 134]. It unified the duties substantially liberalized terms of the activities of domestic entrepreneurs. Charter provided for the creation of the Russian merchant fleet, had a major organizational role in the formation of a single national market and making Russia a powerful trading nation based on the principles of competition and private initiative. Ideas for mercantilism of Ordin-Nashchokin were not an end in itself, they invoked an imperative to resolve the problem of money, eliminate the economic and cultural backwardness of Russia. Ordin -Nashchokin advocated the creation of domestic trading companies, where large merchants would take custody of the small and medium, by lending money to the latter. Given the lack of credit resources, he suggested the use of funds local administration serving as a regional bank. In times of Alexei Mikhailovich there is free admission of foreign goods in Russian markets. Maximum duty on most goods does not exceed 22% of their price and not wearing prohibitive significance. In the treasury this is a significant income in foreign currency, as well as intensified specific position of domestic entrepreneurs. 03050009
9. But if Navigation Act of O. Cromwell, despite the collapse of the Puritan and the change of the royal dynasty, acted more than two centuries, the New Trade charter of A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin lasted about a quarter of a century and was abolished by Peter I, among others at the request of the foreign merchants who called the king "to put aside the harmful Charter." 03050010
10. Governor, who replaced Ordin-Nashchokin in Pskov, without the influence of large lenders, considered this precursor of zemstvo huts (local administrative units) as local banks. 03050011
1. The need to develop the productive forces of Russia became the central idea of the economic program of older contemporary of Peter I, the research worker of the Slavic Center in Moscow, Croat by birth and a Catholic by faith Yuri Krizhanich (c. 1618-1683). Before his trip to Russia, he spoke six European languages. Young Krizhanich still in Rome, the center of Catholicism, was inspired and left him not a moment later in his life the fiery passion to unite Slavic peoples under the aegis of Moscow. Help all Slavs - in theory Krizhanich - can only Moscow Tsar; turned eyes of the Slavs, he alone is able to collect a scattered flock: No wonder God raised in Russia the Slavic to be the state, like which in power, glory and majesty there was none among the Slavs. 03060001
2. Young missionary studied all the at that time scarcely available literature on Muscovy, to find the true causes of division of the Church into Eastern and Western, not considering the Muscovites heretics or schismatics, but as Christians, misled not from pride, but naivety. Wide European education, a passion for languages and philosophical depth of knowledge made Krizhanich one of the greatest Encyclopaedists in XVII. Engaged in political economy, history, philosophy, aesthetics, music, historiography and, of course, theology. In Russia, he was not going to preach Catholicism but wanted to spread the virtues of knowledge, science, arts, to promote the Europeanization of Russia. Prepared a draft for Moscow theater with devices for the presentation on the stage of some feats of Russian saints and princes (State Theatre will be created only a century later); made courses in poetry, rhetoric, grammar, philosophy, mathematics, history, belles-lettres and spiritual creations. For these courses Moscow University was necessary to raise the intellectual level of the Russian people before becoming the head of Slavs. 03060002
3. In Moscow Krizhanich drifted into the Ruthenian sociery, actively communicated with the participants of the liberation war, with Batkoan Hmelen and figures of Pereyaslavska Parliament, and later with those who were ready to battle for the liberation of Belarus and Smolensk. On behalf of an unnamed Cossack Krizhanich wrote an appeal to the Ukrainians that they serve better the great emperor than the Polish Kralj. It was his significant contribution to Ukraine's accession overrun by German troops to get the Polish gentry-state joined to Russia in 1654. 03060003
4. Once after a long journey in February 1659 in Moscow and having undergone lengthy interrogations, Krizhanich was appointed to serve on the orders of the Grand Palace with the definition of salary: 3 altyns 2 money a day on food and drink - plus 3 wine goblets and 3 beers. Could comfortably exist, and particularly as in less than half a year salary was doubled [60; 111-112]. 03060004
5. In addition to Croat Yuri Krizhanich in Moscow in the service of the Russian Tsar also famous scientists and thinkers from neighboring peoples - Pole Andrew Belobotsky, Nikolai Mileeku Spafary Moldovan, Ukrainian Metropolitan Dimitri of Rostov. 03060005
6. Yu Krizhanich worked on "pan-Slavic language Grammar ", prepared a true and perfect history of the Russian state, and the entire Slavic people. But it does not stop there. He considered and proposed to the government a program of economic reform, which was supposed to be informed to the people by the king himself in a long speech, composed for him by Krizhanich and embodying a summary of all of his proposals. In his reform program Krizhanich included ceding foreign wholesale profits from the hands of intermediaries to treasury (it would allow Russia to carry out intermediary trade between Western and Eastern countries, to achieve the availability of good roads and the protection of trade routes), the search for new natural resources, the device of modern industrial enterprises, borrowing European forms of bank credit, the introduction of new means of production and processing of domestic raw materials. He offered to replace all state levies by a direct tax the levy of which should be trusted to local government. Commercial and industrial class would be freed from any kind of monopoly and privileges artisans should receive more working facilities, the city should get local government. Sharply manifested in the program was also the mercantilism of Krizhanich. In his opinion, brought from foreign countries, Russian raw material should go to the local artisans to be treated, and commanded firmly prohibited, under pain of death, the export of raw materials abroad. 03060006
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| 24. Russian Siberian fleet XVII. century |
7. The remaining liberties or slobodins Krizhanich used to the destruction degrading forms of treatment to power (brow beating, naming petitioner's lackey and use pet name). 03060008
8. Philosophy of Russian nationalism proposed by Krizhanich embodying the desire to help in people's needs, moderate poverty and increase the wealth of the people, its crowded. Hence the advice of the autocrat: 03060009
9. "The care and responsibility and the main business of the sovereign is to keep people in good mood and blissful. Not everything is possible for the king: he will not make the earth give a fetus not make sea produce fish. But the emperor has no right to leave without corrections that can be remedied. The best means to fix their long improvements are good charters. For such legislation needs a lot of thinking and weigh, and look in the books, and head trouble "[60; 112]. 03060010
10. Principal misfortunes Russian are thought to be two: hate of foreigners and autocracy (chuzhebesie and chuzhevladstvo). If the first term is adopted for three hundred years later (though without reference to authorship of Krizhanich), then chuzhevladstvo (other kind of government) still remains undeciphered. And this - the foreign yoke, tending over the Slavs, the lack of proper folk ruling elite. When chuzhevladstve at Krizhanich, wealth sucking strangers, they can buy for a song Russian goods and impose huge prices to their own; take out what is needed in Russia itself for further growth of its population. 03060011
11. Chuzhebesie particularly, insisted the Croat scholar, must not become a chuzhevladstvo, ie the domination of foreign dynasty, which eventually would lead to political and economic enslavement of Russia. In this regard, Krizhanich was a supporter of exact law of succession, which, however, has not been developed in Russia. 03060012
12. Krizhanich entered to the national history still another term: ludoderstvo. If the king violates divine and human morals, he does not become the ruler but lyudoderb (enemy of people), who intoduces predatory laws in the country, reducing the population. As an example Krizhanich referred to Ivan the Terrible "in Russia as well as around the world is well known the Damned and a bitter memory of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich as an example. For this king was not only greedy and ruthless lyudoderts but fierce, godless, cruel butcher, torturer and a bloodsucker. "This, according to Krizhanich, explains God's foreknowledge, and robbed Grozny the kingdom and stopped the kind of Rurik. 03060013
13. Russia of 60s of XVII., presented Krizhanich, is standing at the crossroads of two cultural roads. One under the pressure of European culture attracts to a dangerous distance, the other leads back into the thick darkness. He was for a middle way between radicalism and reaction, a supporter of the golden mean, so difficult to achieve in Russia. He repeats like a mantra: the mind says, advises mind, the mind inspires. Throwing of commendable institutions and customs of ancient people is not advised. And not every novelty is evil. But we can not take any novelty without reasoning, lightly just according to pleasure of the team: otherwise tragic mistakes can not be avoided. 03060014
14. He admitted: great our national passion - immeasurable in power, we do not know how or what measures would keep it on middle path to walk, but everybody wants to wander the outskirts and chasms. 03060015
15. A number of historians, including the P.N. Miliukoff believe Krizhanich as forerunner of Peter. Others, such as S.M. Solovyov, relied on the natural course of history, "Colbert in France in the forehead and Russia, Peter the Great in the forehead, acted differently on the same motives, on what two people, one in Europe and one in Asia, to bask in, go in the sun, but in order to avoid the heat of the sun, seek shade. Russia was able to find justification to her movement"[60; 114]. 03060016
16. Another thing is that the vector of movement towards Europeanization was defined by Krizhanich, whom Alexei Mikhailovich, father of Peter, did not want to listen: he tolerated Krizhanich in the order of the Grand Palace less than two years. Also the court understood the dangers: Croat scientist might overshadow any of them. Therefore historian V.V. Svyatlovskaya found Krizhanich victim of ignorance and callousness of the Moscow system, of the commanding order. 03060017
17. Exiled to Tobolsk in the beginning of 1661, also there Krizhanich continues to work on the "Politics" of three parts of the wealth, the power and the wisdom (spiritual) state. Apparent are the brevity and expressive style, simplicity and affordability: 03060018
18. "Whoever catches fish with moderation, will always find catch in a pond. And to those who in one day will clean all the fish from the pond, at other times will catch nothing "- this instruction ends, for example, advice to the king on the collection of taxes [60; 114]. 03060019
19. Reflections of Yuri Krizhanich self about his own fate, and 15 years banned are bitter, but gentle: 03060020
20. "I was called a vagabond, tramp, red tape: unfair. I came to the king, which as unique in the world was the king of my family, tribe, my tongue. I came to his nation, to his own fatherland. I came to the place where only my work and writings may find use, may bear fruit, where only can have price and turnover my goods - I mean grammar, dictionaries and other language translations in Slavic." 03060021
21. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich Krizhanich returned to Moscow. A petition addressed to Theodore Alekseevich, unusual for him, is not signed by the sub and a slave and pilgrim but "slave and worshiper your Yurko Serblyanin " [59; 98-99]. 03060022
22. His works were listed in the inventory of the royal library of books in the collections of Prince Vladimir Golitsyn, Patriarch Joachim, Sylvester Medvedev, the author of one of the versions of Domostrya, the "patriarchal despotism." 03060023
23. In Moscow Krizhanich did not stay, yes was not even persuaded to. He realized that relentlessly carrying the cross, referring not to the king, but to "everything bright, to glorious Russian people, there are for me, my lord and brothers, pious Russian people, the realm of death for me and small monument of my philosophical crafts" [59; 99]. 03060024
1. Peter I tried to carry out the project of the first Russian economist AL Ordin-Nashchokin, created in 1699, in the form of founding Burmistersky trade chamber, as well as establishing the system of in rural huts (земские избы). Also with severe ruthlessness he imprisons almost completely organized class of tax collectors. Trying by centralization (all fees to enter the Moscow City Hall) to eliminate heavy losses and destruction inflicted by townsmen merchants and industrial people and the local administration orders of Moscow, Peter failed to realize the main thing: to initiate productive forces of entrepreneurs to increase the solvency of the urban population. As a practitioner of the theory of enlightened absolutism, the future emperor believed in the possibility of reform only by the forcible compulsion and severe regulation. In one of the decrees, he brought: "Everyone knows that our people will do nothing unless not forced to do" [60; 115]. 04010001
2. In fact, Zemsky bailiffs became a tool of the Moscow City Hall: they brought to the Town Hall what was lost by abuse of tavern and customs bailiffs throughout Russia. Only in Siberia Zemstvo huts were not introduced, there the commercial and industrial population was administered by the governor, customs and tavern heads and barmen. The motivation is as follows: "In some Siberian cities there were no townspeople, and if there were, they were little people: thin, lean, and not included in any public gatherings, believing that there are none" [18; 163]. Meanwhile, it would seem that this sad state of commerce and industry of people in Siberia required just urgent measures to change it. 04010002
3. Even before the Great Northern War, Peter established a number of new taxes, he turned to an increase in fiscal operations on obrok estates (government owned manors). A number of decrees were assigned to new regalny (from Lat. regalia - owned by the king) rights to land or industry, significantly restricting the rights of private property owners and income. In obrok estates were forbidden home baths, inns, privately owned mills, oil mills, fishing. Tax was applied to everything: windows, chimneys, doors, seats in the bazaars, etc. 04010003
4. Then begins the monopolization of the most favorable growing trade in domestic and foreign markets. Into government goods are ranked salt, tobacco, tar, chalk, fish oil, lard, bristle, nitrate, Russian leather, hemp, potash, wax, hemp oil, flaxseed, glue, rhubarb, tar, caviar, in a word, almost all the major selling goods trade. Since 1724 started levy of a new tax - the poll tax. Requisitions from the peasantry by introduction of the poll tax increased by 3 times. It has become a practice, the attribution of serfs to the factories: only 11 Ural factories used forced labor of 25,000 peasants, and up to 1725 in Russia there were 233 industrial sites [33; 33-34]. 04010004
5. In the interests of the treasury, Peter I primarily reorganized system of taxation by imposing taxes and duties not only on land, inns, shops and crafts, also on the identity of the taxpayer. Decree on primogeniture in 1714 abolished the distinction between estates and lands, preventing the noble estate of fragmentation. Poll tax fell on every man, whether he is slave, a free walking or runaway serf. As a result of the audit in 1719 originated a new social class consisting of registered males listed in the poll salary. Poll tax created a lower tax payer class charged with taxes on the population, persons of noble birth were privileged, free from duties. However, rock swagger emperor soon, in 1722, created ranks establishing roster that is: painted officers, who was gradually imposed to every serviceman. Degree (chief officer and a civilian with the eighth grade) provided access to the nobility, which ceased to be a closed estate, but was strengthened by privileges, external marks of distinction: the emblem, new titles and seals. 04010005
6. The economic situation is getting worse, for townspeople grew duties not only in money, but also natural - bread, people, animals. Chief sneak A. Nesterov reported to the king that "other merchants, serving fees and billeting, left or sold their village properties, their homes, went to other ranks, in the artillery, in cabs and collars, gave in protection of different masters the yard in Moscow and country, live in the protection and mortgage of different people as if for the debts; other in fraud, allegedly for poverty and disease in the poorhouses, other went to the factories and fields working as clerks and shop clerks and workers, despite the fact that his estate is in satisfactory condition"[18; 176-177]. 04010006
7. To replenish the merchants government of Peter I combines population townspeople communities one or more cities to one another, in the suburb places for this purpose goverment officers free from all taxes, dues, duties, taxfree people, peasants, some military men involved in industry, forbidding them, in the case of reluctance to enroll in the tenements, continue to engage in trade and all kinds of crafts and returning peasants live for landlords. "If the bell ringers, hunters, gunners, collars, metropolitan, and all sorts of monastic peasants sell in the shops and homes have crafts , - was said in one of the decrees of Peter - and all those in the suburbs who do not want to hold trade and crafts, but live for landlords"[18; 175]. 04010007
8. Collect spilled edifice of commercial and industrial estates did not succeed to the renovator, not by promising any property restitution, remuneration of elected Zemsky theft or threats to abusers "Thou sufferer repair." After a lapse of nearly two years, there is a gradual return of duties to collect taxes and duties to the same magistrates or commandants, and after the division of Russia in provinces (1708) - the governors. Instead of the Moscow City Hall there is the College of Commerce in the cities - the magistrates, but the financial side and the nascent police force were in the hands of the provincial authorities. 04010008
9. Since the time of Peter I, anxious about the rise of foreign trade, some privileges began to spread on the merchant class in urban centers of industry and trade, national and state sources of wealth. In the regulations of the College of Commerce in 1719 the task was "the case and looking at two important things and main definitions, that is to say in the seafare and commerce," that is, the care of the Merchant Navy and the device guilds and the police, all that "enables merchants to be in good condition and can lead not only to looking to be in content, but also that labor in such a treasure were not lost." 04010009
10. Decree of 18 January 1721 for the first time allowed the purchase of serfs to the factories, to persons outside noble origin: merchants and industrialists, which was one of the factors in the rapid increase the volume of social reproduction. 04010010
11. Administrative and mandatory style of domestic reforms nevertheless brought economic result. The result was achieved trade surplus: 2.1 million rubles of imports accounted for 4.2 mln. rubles of Russian exports [33; 33]. 04010011
12. Peter's steps for the formation of commercial and industrial estates ("so that all-Russian merchants, like a spilled edifice, were assembled to packs") were limited to the separation of the citizens or the so-called regular citizens in the two guilds. The first consisted of bankers, prominent merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skipper of merchant ships and "such like, from which the first guild or a first-class consists, and of other owning citizenship without privileges and advantages." The second guild enlisted citizens who were engaged in "petty goods and trade in pubs, all sorts of supplies, as well as handicrafts, carvers, turners, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers and the like." 04010012
13. Were formed handicraft workshop with elected elders, introduced a seven-year apprenticeship with no rationing of production - a form of protection that protectionism in Western Europe did not know, and the guild system there by this time had become an anachronism. 04010013
14. From guild people differed the mass of ordinary people who lived by day to day work and represented, by definition of rules of Chief Magistrate, "all the other vile people acquiring in hired and in menial jobs that anywhere between nobles and regular citizens was not defined or counted." 04010014
15. In 1742 vile people have been renamed to the merchants of the third guild, and from that time the term merchant actually made friends with the concept of conglomerate taxpayer, and subsequently these terms were used without clear distinction. 04010015
16. Peter I, creating a standing army, strengthening the industry and filling the coffers for this purpose, imprisoned estates and increased their taxes even more than his predecessors. Nobles and people engaged in government services for evading service of the royal threatened not only fines, but corporal punishment, confiscation of property ("movable and immovable property will be irrevocably unsubscribed upon us"), but also the deprivation of property rights - defamation. 04010016
17. Seduced by the comparative wealth of Western European cities, Peter tried by administrative reforms at the expense of trade and industry of the Russian population also raise domestic cities. But these attempts were doomed, because in European cities, many aspects of social development (craft, trade, construction, charity of the poor, widows and orphans, education, science, arts, fun, entertainment, other needs of the population) historically, as we have noted improved under the municipal government. The gradual development of the welfare of certain segments of the urban population and the further development of social needs took place parallely with the satisfaction of the needs of the citizens. 04010017
18. Peter instead of the temple of entrepreneurial gathered great political edifice - autocratic state, a member of the European international family. This goal was the people and money urban commercial and industrial class, playing the role that is diametrically opposed to the spirit and essence of the Western European business structures. Complaints about the general apathy of the Russian people is tempered by the complete subjugation of subjects directly or indirectly to the state. Independent of the state, public or private interests and goals were in the eyes of the Emperor and his henchmen worthless. As with Ivan IV, the Russian reforms served sovereign, but not the people's cause. 04010018
1. It has long been all foreigners, Observation academician N.G. Ustryalov (1805-1870), author of "History of the reign of Peter the Great," marveled vast expanse of pre-Petrine Russia, the abundance of natural works, boundless devotion to the Emperor of all classes, the splendor of the Moscow courtyard, the large number of troops. But it is believed that Russia - Power of tune, uneducated and are weak. Contemporary of Peter, the Italian philosopher George Vico (1668-1744) in his book "The New Science of Giambattista Vico" does not refer to the Russian state possessing a mature culturally. The reason that among the great monarchs there are barbarians, Vico believed that they led the nation for a long time developed on the basis of folksy wisdom. To this Italian philosopher, not without arrogance and prejudice, joined imperfect nature of their subordinate nations. In particular, the king of Muscovy (This remark applies to Peter I), although Christian, rules the people of lazy mind. 04020001
2. And how he ruled! 04020002
3. Peter was not embarrassed even by the superstitious terror of the Moscow folk, when two weeks before leaving for a trip to Europe was discovered the conspiracy musketeer Lieutenant Colonel Ivan Tsyklera, compiled in 1697 by Fyodor Pushkin and Alexei Sokovnin against Peter. The plot was discovered, and Tsyklera with accomplices were quartered at the grave of Ivan Mikhailovich Miloslavsky was dug out of the ground, in Red Square put a stone pillar with steel spokes with executed heads stuck on them. With a specific consciousness archers were executed. 04020003
4. Trying to a full end of all that could be dangerous opposition to his aspirations, Peter returning, mass executions continued: "Red Square was covered with decapitated bodies; White City walls and Earthen City were studded with hanged"[19 t.Sh; 237]. In 1699, the archers were converted to the townspeople, the prohibition to take them into military service. And those who are recorded as soldiers, hiding what he was before Archer, was ordered to exile to Siberia. 04020004
5. For serious crimes head was cut off with an ax, buried alive in the ground to the shoulders. Many were punished by burning in a small wooden barn, surrounded inside and outside by dry straw. Offender after pronouncing sentence upon him was locked in the barn and the straw lit. These things were performed without noise, quietly: if the punishment was done at one end of the city, the residents of the other end did not know of the penalty. Ordinary criminals were beaten by whip, long strap whip or whip on bare back and so hard that the punished could die after a few strokes. Each executioner had his techniques and his assistants from among the same audience. To the Dutch artist de Bruin, drawing for Peter, seemed the most painful the punishment in which the offender's head was shaved and on it dripped a drop of cold water [71; 87]. Water, well known, wears away the stone. 04020005
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| 25. Peter I |
6. Insolvent debtors, or those who refused to satisfy their creditors, were exposed in front of the Palace by the order and were given three strokes of the cane on the legs, in divided doses. For a debt of one hundred rubles (then price of three trunk) punishment lasted for a whole month, every day. For the debts of more or less one hundred rubles (as though reasoned, and a hundred rubles money) punished by the same rule, commensurate with debt. When after that the debtor was still unable to pay, then all his property was sold and the money used to satisfy the lender. If this did not cover the debt, the debtor and his wife and children were rendered into the service of the lender to pay five rubles a year for men and half of women for their service. The landlord had to feed and clothe his debtors, and they were obliged to remain in the service until their debt was completely covered. 04020007
7. Russia was viewed as a great opportunity for something, even though it was known that at the end of the XVII century it meant little to Europe. This was the country which Peter inherited. Every one of his predecessors had the custom of staying out of reach, at a distance from the people; environment was used with power and influence only for own gain. Outside Russia were extremely humbled setbacks in Poland, paid inheritances to Crimean khan, Ingrian lost ground at the Gulf of Finland, lost a good half of the Ruthenia, which in 1654 voluntarily submitted to Moscow. Foreign trade was the monopoly of foreigners. Inside a schism led by mad with vanity Patriarch Nikon, continued unrest and riots, piling up of arrears, along with ignorance and cruelty all over, dominated embezzlement, bribery and flattery. Bribes were detected even in external relations, replacing the military courage or diplomatic skills. Near Azov Pasha tried to persuade the city to pass great deals and to Poland was suggested to send a plenipotentiary with satisfactory amount of money as present, although Poles instead of money more loved Moscow sables. 04020008
8. Sophia (1657-1704), ruler of Russia in 1682-1689 years, during young kings of Ivan and Peter, sought to strengthen ties with Europe. In early 1689, she called by a special manifesto to Russia French Protestants expelled from the fatherland by Louis XIV. 04020009
9. Frenchman de la Nevill who visited Muscovy in 1689, testified: "On the outskirts of Moscow are living now more than a thousand merchants: English, Dutch, Flemish, Hamburg and Italian merchants. Ships of these people come to Arkhangelsk in July and depart from there in September [70; 524]. 04020010
10. Favorite of the ruler Prince V.V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), a Westerner and the most educated man of his time, according to the same Neville, intended to "put Muscovy at the same level with other states. He gathered accurate information about the state of the European powers and their control, and wanted to start with the liberation of the peasants by giving them land that they were currently treating in favor of the king, so that they could pay the annual tax. According to his calculations, the tax would increase the annual yield of the land of princes more than doubled" [70; 525]. 04020011
11. This intention Golitsyn, incidentally, determined the fate of Sophia Alekseevny, concluded in the same year in the Novodevichy Convent. 04020012
12. Peter after becoming independent ruler in 1689, in the manner of Ivan the Terrible ordered all border magistrates to question firmly visiting foreigners, from which land they are coming, their rank, to whom and for what purpose they are coming, who knows them in Moscow, had they been in Russia before, whether they had a certificate of their authorities and carriageway sheets. After collecting the details and these arrived to Moscow they should wait for the king's commandment, and without the decree nobody from abroad must be allowed in Russia. About excessive compliance and accessibility of Peter and in his youth can nothing be told: energy and firm determination of his character did not know obstacles, have developed very early, and attitude to foreigners was not associated with European principles in Russian life. 04020013
13. The objectives sought by the Europeans, which not nearly were reached by Russia, did not immediately interest Peter. Immediately after the overthrow of Sophia none of the foreigners did occupy an important place, although in Moscow lived two hundred Protestant worshipers in a church, and much more Lutherans, who had two churches. In the early days of his reign in Moscow was burned heretic Kuhlman, after that there was an order not to let into Russia a single foreigner without the king's commandment, which apparently served as the basis for Vico, who ranked Russian monarch to the barbarians. 04020014
14. In the first five years of his reign among the most important order of Peter were: about no sessions in orders from 24 December to 8th of January (Christmas vacation); on Human branding subjected to secondary punishment and exile, the letter B; banning the cabbies stand in the Kremlin with horses and so on. The king strictly watched serviceable drainage cups and by example encouraged companions to fight Ivashka - Khmelnitsky. 04020015
1. The Europeanization of Russia was not initially intimate thoughts of the young king. Peter, say, personally loved and respected Lefort, Timmermann, Brandt, whom he met in the German Quarter, caring little about what they were originally. Brandt was for him a man who knew how to build a boat, Lefort served for Peter as a model of cheerful companion and a good storyteller, but not as representative of European culture. Noticeable in the German Quarter was the school opened by pastor Gluck, the program of which approached the curriculum of European schools of the time. 04030001
2. Relations with foreigners began with the astrolab, brought by Prince J.F. Dolgoruky (1659-1720) in the early days of Peter. The king showed her Hulst, he had recommended Hulst to Timmermann, Timmermann found Brandt, Brandt introduced the king with Kort. In the Trinity Lavra Peter learned Lefort and Patrick Gordon, through the latter became known to him, and Mehdi Vinius through Vinius - Krevst etc. Thus arose near the king a circle of personalities from among the foreigners without any distant Eurocentric considerations. 04030002
1. Apparently, the first place in the inner circle should be given a native of Geneva, Franz Lefort (1656-1699), which still in the XVIII century in the French melodrama "Peter the Great" was one of the favorite characters of the revolutionary Parisian public, singing under the zither happy line:
"There was in the light of the good king,
Orthodox emperor.
All hearts loved him,
all other father and honored."
Brave swordsman, talker and humorist, who had experience in commercial and military affairs, he hired nineteen volunteer in Russia at the service of the Russian Tsar. Reaching through Arkhangelsk to Moscow, Lefort as a captain at war with the Tatars in the Ukraine, and from 1690 always faithful and inseparable from Peter, headed great embassies to the European courts. 04030101
1. Among those who ruled the grandfather and father of Peter, I mention recalled Andrew Denisovich Vinius, which led to 1627 major grain trade in Arkhangelsk, and settled in Moscow shortly after returning of Patriarch Filaret from Poland. In 1632 A.D. Vinius built near Tula Russia's first iron-smelting and iron-working factory, water-powered, products of which were much cheaper than imported from Sweden with huge popularity. 04030201
2. It is at this factory in 1672 where became a blacksmith Diemid Antufiev, the founder of the Demidov family that gave Russia a lot of great businessmen and public figures. His son, Nikita Demidovich (1656-1725), was significantly glorified in that he subdued to Peter skill and organizational acumen: they skilfully prepared samples of guns like the king, who made the Tula craftsman supplier of weapons to troops during the Northern war. Since Nikita Demidov produced guns much cheaper than abroad, but with them the same quality, Peter in 1701 ordered alienate the property of businessman lying near Tula land for coal mining and assigns him a plot in Scheg-Sylow. In 1702 the young king gives Demidov Verhotur Railways Mills on the River Nevy in the Urals, arranged with Alexis, and then other companies registered to them with dozens of villages and townships, with an obligation to return the treasury the debt in iron within five years. In the Tsar's family name Demidov first appears instead of the old nicknames Antufiev. At the founding of St. Petersburg Nikita Demidov became one of the assistants of Peter, to whose new capital he donates iron and money. From 1716 till 1725 N. Demidov built four new factories in the Urals and one on the Oka River. Son Demidov Akinfiy N. (1678- 1745) with 1702 takes control Nevyan plants, opens the famous silver mines of the Altai then received the jurisdiction of the treasury. 04030202
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| 26. Nikita Demidovich Demidov |
 |
| 27. Akinfiy N. Demidov |
3. In 1726, A.N. Demidov with brothers and downward offspring was elevated to the hereditary noble rank in Nizhny Novgorod with the privilege of not needing to offer any services to other nobles. 04030205
4. So, with a light hand Peter arose entrepreneurial Demidov dynasty. 04030206
5. But particularly achieved Vinius son, Andrei Andreyevich (1641-1717), who when Alexis was the Duma clerk and interpreter in the embassy order, several times participated in diplomatic negotiations. When Peter turned to the organizer and leader of mining and metallurgical production in Russia and Ukraine, he became the head of the Siberian and artillery orders, but mired in bribery and was sent to Little Hetman Skoropadsky. 04030207
1. In the middle of the XVII century, appeared in Moscow also William Bruce (? - 1680), a descendant of the Scottish kings, who was forced to leave his homeland during the reign of Cromwell. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich gladly accepted him to exile and appointed him colonel of a regiment of regular standing in Pskov. In Russian history, particularly glorified are sons and grandsons of W. Bruce. The eldest son of Roman Williamovich (1668 - 1720) went from the king's maintenance to the chief commandant of St. Petersburg, the builder of a stone fortress, built under his leadership, replacing an old earthen, within which, beside the cathedral, against the altar, Lieutenant General R.V. Bruce was also buried. 04030301
2. Bruce Jacob Williamovich (1670 - 1735) with the rank of warrant officer involved in the Azov campaigns MM Golitsyn (1675-1730) and was awarded the estate and money. Enlightenment of all associates of Peter (astronomer and mathematician, botanist and mineralogist, artillery and geographer), he in 1689 became inseparable companion of Peter in his campaigns and journeys. He retired as General Field Marshal, President Berg - and Manufactures - boards, with the rank of senator; after the victory in the Northern War was the dignity of the graph; glorified compiling the first calendar, which appeared in print in 1709, thus becoming the founder of the calendar business in Russia. 04030302
3. Peter used also other foreigners to the benefit of Russia. Danish merchant, diplomat and geographer Izbranda Ides was sent in 1692 to China to verify the performance of the Chinese emperors Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) and for the negotiation of a device trade relations with Russia. Description of this trip N.I. Novikov (1744-1818) placed in the "Ancient Russian Library" (Volume VIII). 04030303
1. A significant person in the history of the Russian fleet became a Dutch-born Brandt -Karsten (? - 1693), who came to Russia in 1669 as a ship's apprentice on the ship "Eagle", built by order of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village itself Dedinovo for the Caspian Sea. On this ship Brandt served more than a year and are willing to take it into the sea when a sudden attack on Astrakhan by Stenka Razin forced to flee to Moscow masters. There he more than two decades kept herself by carpentry trade. In 1688 the village of Izmailovo at the outskirts of Moscow fate brings carpenter Brandt in contact with the future emperor Peter, who accidentally finds the boat, which was brought by the British as a gift to Alexei Mikhailovich. 04030401
2. In a handwritten note by Emperor Peter the Great "About the beginning of shipbuilding in Russia" stated: "What happened to us (in May 1688) when being in Izmailovo, linseed yard and walking through the barns, where lay the remains of things grandfather's house Nikita Ivanovich Romanov, between which I saw a foreign vessel, said Franz (Timmermann), what kind of boat? He said that the bot English. I asked where it is used? He said that on the ship - for riding and carriage. I packs asked what advantage it has compared with our courts (compared with ours and strength)? He told me that he walks on the sails are not just with the wind, but also against the wind; that word greatly surprised me and seemed also incredible." 04030402
3. This small boat, made famous by the name of the grandfather of the Russian fleet, and was renamed to Brandt. An experienced carpenter taught the young king to ride overshoe, steer and thus became the first coach of Peter's seamanship. Later he built for the king on the Moscow River boat, two frigates and three boats on Lake Pereyaslavl: the young emperor was preparing to descend on Ner - to come to Don and Azov. 04030403
4. But Russia continued to attract Europe by its geographic location and a huge (fifteen million) homogenous population. And in what language to communicate with Europe, can be judged by the letter of the Polish 1699 citizen, authorized by Karlovic facing the challenge of Peter on his war with Sweden: 04030404
5. "Your Imperial Majesty enjoys immense benefits to achieve worldwide fame, to have a flourishing trade with the Netherlands, England, Spain, Portugal, with all the northern, western and southern European countries, and what is most important and what no one emperor was able to do: open trade route between east and west, with the exclusive right to all the benefits. This means that his Majesty will go down in close communication with the first Christian monarchs, and gain weight and significance in the general affairs of Europe, establish a formidable navy and put Russia on the level of the third maritime power, force the French king to give up the dream of the French monarchy, sooner than conquest of the Turks and Tatars, glorified in the whole world. If, on the opening of the War of the Spanish Succession, or on another occasion, send the aid to England and the Netherlands 10, 20 thousand troops with a significant fleet and the allies will look at his Majesty with a special reverence; Muscovites also between the opponent's score will learn the art of war, and then, without the need for more foreign officers, with the best success will lead the war against the Turks and Tatars. Other benefits of the best high weigh brings the mind of his Imperial Majesty "[19 t.Sh; 333]. 04030405
6. In 1722, after the victory in the Great Northern War (Peter followed the advice of Karlovic), the boat - "children's joy, brought the men triumph, and this coveted Herald" - was transported to St. Petersburg, where it was staged on a quadrangular pedestal painted by painter Ivan Zarudny. 04030406
1. "Alien eyes, confirms also N.G. Ustrialov, could not be noted in Russia or mature, distinctive elements of the state, nor the consent of the marvelous, which is the basis of power of civil society and can not be replaced by any benefits of natural position, even not by the success of education." 04030501
2. But in addition to the bright side of Russia, the historian pointed also dark elements, concluding that "nowhere situation does appear to be as sad and show such unfortunate pattern, as in our own country" and that "Russia, despite the positive development of the basic elements of its own, has not reached the purpose, to which all European states and which is reliable security outside and inside, in the active development of the moral, intellectual and industrial forces, knowledge and art, in mitigating the wild animal nature, in a word: that adorns and ennobles man" [19 m. III; 123]. 04030502
3. As you can see, in the assessment of the social, civil true nature of people, for which the providential God so installed and arranged the affairs of men, Russian historian N.G. Ustrialov agrees with the Italian philosopher George Vico, who gave the shortest definition of civilization: it is good behavior. 04030503
4. Peter had his predecessors (in the person of his grandfather, for example) in the sense that it would not be harmful for Russians to learn from foreigners selfless behavior. Felt this need in the Navy also Alexis. Under him, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin ships were built 2000 in Riga, which were then burned by Stenka Razin. The introduction of the German clothing was allowed King Theodore, who himself wore a Polish dress. But all of them, including Ivan the Terrible, the English king, sending Russians to study abroad, use half-measures, and slowly began predestined to stop plans at the first failed attempt. 04030504
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| 28. Construction of ship in the XVII century |
5. This real state of sense of love towards foreigners Peter finds not in 1693, when the king visits the Archangel and examines Dutch and Hamburg ships, but only three years later, after the failure of the first Azov campaign. In 1696 Peter, taught by bitter experience, doing what no one before him did not dare to do: He is in a hurry to send to Russia foreign engineers, gunners, ship masters and captains, in the same year sends first group of young carpenters to study in European capitals, and finally decided to go there himself with deliberate conviction of borrowing for Russian art and useful knowledge of Europeans. 04030506
6. More than half of the eighteen months of life of the great ambassador Peter works in shipyards in Holland and England: hewing logs and boards, adjusts rigging, acting as a carpenter and fulfilling all the orders of his masters. For what? Here is the testimony of the writer, M.D. Chuikov (1743-1792) of the interests of Peter: "Nothing escaped the curiosity of this great monarch, and no craft from the king's visionary eyes; all was surveyed by them jealously, to be later teached to his subjects in the same kind of factories, crafts and arts. For this he learned everything, and to the masters of art of all specialties he approached but as a friend, graciously. With blacksmiths hammer beating, with the carpenters hewn logs and boards, with leather tanners whittling and, in short, all the things with indescribable zeal with hands of the monarch he did that adjoins to commerce and the flourishing condition can cause "[59; 103]. 04030507
1. No wonder Peter did not make it. He was not the sole or primary cause of Europeanization of Russia. Reforms have been prepared during all the previous course of history, but Peter was a talented, persistent, energetic entrepreneur endowed to the same autocratic power. 04040001
2. Peter I for his unusual and hitherto unsolved personality revealed to the world a new type not only a statesman but also a sailor. He bequeathed to celebrate the beginning of a new maritime order in Russia after him becoming the grandfather of the Russian fleet in the barn of the village of Preobrazhensk in 1688. From this moment begin the large-scale and selfless business activities of Peter the Great. Not only a "window to Europe" owned his thoughts, but the expulsion of the king of Tours in Asia and all will busurman hordes return the holy places in Palestine Orthodox clergy. Peter kept in sight of all the surrounding Russian sea, from the White to the Mediterranean. Sukharev Tower on the way to the Trinity and the White Sea, created a kind of ship, four years before the decision of the Boyar Duma seagoing vessels have become a new icon of Russia, as well as the spire of the Admiralty, topped with a ship, a new symbol of Holy Russia. 04040002
1. Already in 1696 when the treasury was depleted Peter ordered that the owners and spiritual leaders of communities of 8,000 peasant households, and secular with 10,000 built a ship by April 1698, and merchant people, all together, by the same date to manufacture 12 bomb-vessels. And who does not want to build or is defective, in order to select the village, to deprive bellies and courtyards. And ripe were the ships in 16 months, and they were more than anticipated by the witty king. A year later every two kumpanstva had to build the ship. 04040101
2. The author of "Travel to Muscovy" C. de Bruin, being in those days in Russia, shows not without surprise, that "the construction of ships is on the public expense, and every thousand serfs have to deliver everything you need to build a ship and everything relating to this building "[71; 94]. 04040102
3. And they did build! Russian peasants, serfs, His Majesty's different boyars, nobles and monasteries. Moreover, by themselves, without foreign masters, although Peter sent out letters to all States asking them to send the best skilled craftsmen to Russia. Gregory D. Stroganov (1656-1715), an eminent man, a descendant of the famous Stroganov, united family's vast holdings in Pomerania, Perm and the Urals, subsidizes the construction of ships in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk. 04040103
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| 29. Admiralty Shipyards. Saint Petersburg |
4. Peter sent Russians carpenters abroad to learn things related to the sea, and also self-travelled behind them, ashamed that the sailors and ships bypass the tsar'st craftsmanship and science. Maritime school (it was handed over to the use of Suharev Tower) chose the 500 pupils themselves. There, students were trained naval officers in addition to the artillery, engineering tasks, tasks of geodesy, architects and even government officials, scribes, and masters. By building a fleet the emperor became the model for the entrepreneur for his subjects, who built one hundred vessels in twenty years for Pleshtshejev lake. 04040105
5. It is known that during one of his visit to the factory in 1696 Peter personally forged iron 18 pounds per day (an average of 13.3 pounds of wood) and demanded for himself the salary of the younger master blacksmith rate, i.e. 3 kopecks per pound [81; 66]. 04040106
6. Yet Peter had overtroubled position, he had to overcome many obstacles. Rise of young people, of humble, obscure origin, their training abroad offended generic Boyars arrogance caused parochial quarrels irritated the honorable pedigree and boyars. In the military and marine sciences, Peter himself opens a new world; it is a powerful engine of events. 04040107
7. Conceived war with Sweden, from where Russia imported quality pig iron, Peter, with his characteristic insight from 1697 refers to the Urals. Making sure that there is no worse than iron sveyskogo (Swedish) king at the same time building in the Urals two state-owned factory blasts, Kamensky and Nevyansky. They were running two plants each: Uktussky Alapaevsky, and closer to the theater of war - Olonetsky Lipetsk plants [81; 338-339]. 04040108
8. Now Peter strongly needed the Fleet, not as a carpenter but as a military commander and manager, ready to join the battle with Turkey and Sweden. Together with an experienced and skilful admiral Kreis king determined that the vessels built by companies are not satisfactory: some need to be strengthened for arms and snap, the other fixed in the body, while others, unable to move or roll, completely redone. Correction had to do the companies themselves under the supervision of British Masters. 04040109
1. Transfer of the capital (and this was one of the most beloved and dear to the heart of Peter) was justified not so much by proximity of Ingrian lands to Europe, as by the fact that the history of Russia begins again at the same place where it had begun a thousand years ago, when the capital of ancient Russia was not Kiev nor the Great Novgorod, but Ladoga, called in the middle of the 8th century Nevogorod. Peter also revered the memory of Alexander Nevsky, a key figure in the country's history. 04040201
2. Earlier than elsewhere brick factories started working at Neva river. Peter with nominal decree forbade stone buildings around the country under the threat of bankruptcy of the estate, and expulsion. 04040202
3. In the year of the founding of St. Petersburg in 1703 at the shipyard in Olonetsk Lodeinoe field was started construction of warships. Frigate "Standart", the first Russian warship in the Baltic Sea, in the same year, personally led at the mouth of the Neva, by Peter I. Founded by Peter Admiralty drawings ("length of 200 fathoms, width 100 fathoms") have their factories, shipyards, and natural forests. In 25 cities of Russia, Peter founded the Admiralty schools for different ranks of figures and geometry. 04040203
4. The turning point in the fate of the future capital of Russia was the glorious Battle of Poltava June 27, 1709, after which continuously follow one another king's commandment to the construction in St. Petersburg stone houses, about moving senior government places from Moscow to the new city, the same with the nobles, traders and industrialists. 04040204
5. In 1723 the decree of Peter, is strictly forbidden to build factories around Moscow and the Neva River to Schlüsselburg, and available-General to destroy, because already in the forests is a dire need and almost a little was left. Peter saw the forest as a strategic material for the construction of the fleet. Hack of timber suitable for shipbuilding forbidden under pain of death. Decrees were read about it in the churches for general information. Along the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland every five miles to the gallows stood for wood destructors [73; 125]. 04040205
1. Peter I presented for the first time a large-scale social demand for entrepreneurial activity, particularly in the mining, weapons, cloth and linen industries. Peter used the following methods of administration institutions in manufactories:
2. During the first two decades of the XVIII century through the establishment in 1700 of Ore order in Russia were built 26 ironworks, 5 copper and 1 silver [65; 27]. 04040302
3. The old iron factories in force near Tula and Kashira, added plants in the Olonets region, near Moscow and Maloyaroslavets, factories and Akemi Izbranta in Moscow, Nikita Demidov near Tula, factories and Borin Aristova in Romanovsky district. Since 1696 unfolded exploration in the Urals [52; 520]. 04040303
4. With private factories in treasury were charged a fee by 1 of 10 parts of manufactured products, in value or volume terms. 04040304
5. Leading back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. state-owned mining plants in which the mechanical workshops were held, as well as special weapons enterprises played an important role in the development of domestic engineering. There preparing cadres capable of manufacturing complex mechanisms, taking the first attempts to create machines. The king's order contained Russian bourgeoisie. 04040305
6. Spirit of the Petrine era in mining and metallurgical enterprise is noticeable in the first issue of the first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti", which reported January 2, 1703: 04040306
7. "From Kazan is written. On Soku river a lot of oil and copper ore are found, from this no small profit runs to Muscovy "[17; 34]. 04040307
8. It was during these years, began Vasily Tatishchev (1686-1750) his career of the most outstanding figures of Russian mining and metallurgical in the first half of the XVIII century. Before the Northern War he gets injunction to go to the Urals with the task of Peter "in the Siberian province in Kungur and other places where is found a convenient special place" to build factories and smelt metal. In the Urals Tatishchev creates a single center, driving a mining and metallurgical works from the Urals to the distant expanses of Siberia, until ores of Altai and Transbaikal. Tobolsk district is chosen as ideal for buildings in the Upper Iset large arms factory, where the Tobolsk son boyar Ivan Astrakhantsev with 1700 cast guns, mortars, nucleus. Later here was founded Ekaterinburg. 04040308
9. By the end of the first quarter of XVIII century Ural plants were already built as complex plants. Driven by demands of factory owners in 1721 they were allowed to buy serfs for the factories, and in 1736 all civilian factory workmen turned the state into regular to factories. Industrial labor on the basis of land quickly penetrated into the sphere of the patrimonial industrial production. The combination of agricultural and industrial labor instead of a temporary transition state, characteristic of Western Europe, was confirmed in Russia more than a century-long period and remained even after 1861 [52; 522.526]. 04040309
10. In the 20 years of the XVIII century Gregory Kapustin clerk finds coal in the Don. These efforts have contributed to the fact that by the end of the reign of Peter I pig iron increased by 770%. 04040310
1. Creation of bureaucracy was accompanied by theft, corruption, economic chaos, which naturally lead to excessive costs. 04040401
2. The temptation to profit by industrial speculations did not escape to become known by the king through the persons as a powerful as temporary worker A.D. Menshikov, Vice-Chancellor of P.P. Shafirov, one of the richest Russian merchants M.G. Evreinov, which in 1721 was given to the Emperor in the city of Arkhangelsk, in Kola and other northern areas greasy, walrus and animal crafts. Unrighteousness-gotten wealth of private individuals, close to the royal court, brought themselves wealth, and their owners, as a rule, to tragic results. 04040402
3. The administrator of the Petrine era, Senator of the first Duke G.I. Volkonsky was involved in a history of official arms industry. He was charged with nominal decree in February 1712 the construction of water acting in Tula arms factories and weapons yard, as well as the establishment of a training base for weapon skills. Three years later, after numerous denunciations and accusations of bribery and great deductions, management of Tula factory, village and artisans were transferred to Y.V. Bruce. Mentioned was about communication of Volkonsky with Nikita Demidov: he promised to supply iron to price not higher than 13 altyn two money put in Tver 20,000 pounds and "intercession for Volkonskogo received 16 altyn 4 money for pood, and with merchants and takes less than 13 per pood; and the other artillery supplies others will take to deliver against Demidov for half price. Demidov untruthful, but he got for it not so much lucre as Volkonsky and others. [Op. by: S.M. Soloviev Works. M.CH993. Kn.8; s.470]. Then under investigation for abuse were, in addition to Volkonskogo such influential dignitaries as A.D. Menshikov, General Admiral P.M. Apraxin (1659-1728), the Siberian governor Prince. M.P. Gagarin, who was executed in 1721 for an incredible extortion and violence, the head of the St. Petersburg Admiralty A.V. Kikin et al., And opened another. prince Volkonskiy with Senator V.A. Apukhtin supplied purveyance in Bryansk and decently, as it turned out, warmed his hands on it (contracted were many different names taking for themselves provisions, taking high prices and people carrying the burden). Of Senators were confiscated property, to the shame of them they were whipped, and for violation of the oath their language burned with a hot iron. 04040404
1. In the Urals, VN Tatischev starts widespread construction of factory schools: in Yekaterinburg open verbal, arithmetic, signify, German, Latin, and at dozens of plants - verbal and arithmetic Schools, Educational mining and factory business, mechanics, logarithmic calculi assay art, foreign languages. Pupils mastered production skills in turning, stone cutting, lapidary, carpentry, soldering affairs. Tatischev pointed out: "If one of those who know the craft itself and did not want to work, then he can teach convenient signified knowledge and writings" [17; 64]. 04040501
2. Back in 1703 in Church Slavonic appeared an essay by L.F. Magnitsky (1669-1739), a teacher of mathematics in the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow (since 1701). "Arithmetic, o numeral science" Encyclopedia of initial knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry. She gave a theoretical basis for further development of mechanics, geodesy, astronomy and navigation. 04040502
3. Development of domestic entrepreneurial culture also contributed to a royal command in 1714 for the establishment in all provinces of Russia so-called tsifirnyh schools, that is secular, to teach children from 10 to 15 years, all classes, except for smallholders, arithmetic and elementary geometry. These schools were ordered to open in episcopal homes and in more affluent monasteries; teaching was free, but of each student to finish the course and obtain the certificate, the teacher receiving government remuneration, could take a ruble from the student. 04040503
4. The need to spread awareness among the people felt before, as can be seen, for example, from the preface to the first "Arithmetic" attributable to N.M. Karamzin of 1635 In the preface he calculated different uses of arithmetic to lure readers to employment of it; referred to as "the wisdom to this visit in the States trade, and in all sorts of goods brings force to trade knowledge, and in any weights and measures, and in the everyday understanding and sea currents exceedingly skilful and expense of any number of list of known "[History of the Russian state, part IX, prim.437]. However, trade with foreigners was conducted a long time, they have repeatedly stated that the Russian tsars see in this trade a means of enrichment for the treasury. 04040504
1. Peter I, pursuing a policy of mercantilist nature, was not the author of works and special works in this direction, but in Russia it had distinctive features. In contrast to Western European mercantilists, he is seeking to expand exports, Peter directly expressed the belief that there must be a Russian manufactory for Russia and meet her needs. For example, in 1712 a decree was proposed to expand the production of Moscow Cloth yard, so you can not buy the uniform overseas. Supports the development of linen production necessary to supply canvas to the fleet rapidly being built. Developed were domestic shipbuilding centers: Voronezh, Staraya Ladoga, Lodeynoye Pole, Olonets, Petrozavodsk, St. Petersburg. Trade was the Home winner of human destiny, the king thought. The Vyborg district in 1718 opened the first sugar factory, in 1719 the enterprise for the production of wax, which, as it were replaced with modern electricity. 04040601
2. Duties levied under Peter in foreign currency - Efimkov; at the rate of 1724, in the drafting of which was directly involved emperor levied high taxes (75%), with imports of iron, cloth, canvas, silk fabrics, needles, wax, etc. Duty-free imports in Russia were such valuable raw materials like silk and raw cane sugar for the first built in the of St. Petersburg plants. Commercial capital, refer to the sphere of production, when Peter was actively supported by the central government. Matured concept of the state budget and a large factory industry. These economic processes similar is happening in Europe, called Russia's rapprochement with the European economy. Peter continued (though not directly) policies that support national merchants, whose representatives are relegated to trade commodities such as Russia leather, potash, tar, hemp, caviar, etc., the sale of which is a monopoly coffers. Russian exporters were exempted from import duties if imports exceeded exports by value not more than 26%. 04040602
3. Peter guarded wealthy people from excessive luxury, signed in 1712 a decree forbidding the selling, buying and wearing gold and silver as inappropriate and wasteful consumption, due to the lack of money of the Treasury. Arrears actually accounted for about 50-60% of expected revenues [97; 88]. The deficit was overcome by increasing the tax burden: a vicious circle. 04040603
1. The starting point of a new period in the history of Russian trade was the conquest of Peter the shores of the Baltic Sea and the foundation of a new port - Petersburg. "At the very beginning of this prosperous port - tells M.D. Stockings in the "Historical Description of Russian commerce at all ports and borders" - as if some one was brought providence Dutch merchant ship in the fall of 1703, in order to return, heralded thereof Europe that had Happiness be with newborn port, which in the eyes of the enemy, against all expectations and some desires, based increases and will attract all of northwestern commerce."[60; 118]. 04050001
2. According to "St. Petersburg Gazette", in November 1703 in the mouth of the Neva accidentally came Dutch vessel with wine and salt, directing, probably to Nienschanz; The Captain was invited to the table of A.D. Menshikov (1673-1729) and he was given 500 gold ducats, and the sailors yefimki 300 each; for every new arrival to captain was promised 100 rubles, adequate remuneration is guaranteed also sailors. 04050002
3. After the conquest of Dorpat, Narva, Ivangorod and therefore all Ingermanland Peter gave Admiralty Shipyard and announced to foreign countries through their embassies about the new Russian harbor. Such notification, as well as the construction of the Kronstadt fortress and courtyard seating, not converted Petersburg in the great merchant's store: prices in the capital were significantly higher than in Arkhangelsk. 04050003
4. This obstacles to passage, Peter tried to eliminate by connecting the Volga with the Neva. Immediately after the capture of Azov in 1696 Peter I outlined the construction of a canal between the Volga and the Don. In 1701, work was interrupted due to the fact that Peter and his advisors decided to join the Don and Volga basins by a northern route. In 1703 it was decided to build a Volochok water system to connect the Volga basin (and, hence, the Caspian Sea) to the Baltic Sea. Volochok track system was from the Volga through its tributary, river Tvertsa, followed by a projected artificial Vyshnevolotskaya and Tsninsky channels, river Dne, through Mstinsky lake, river Meta, Sievers and Vishersky Channels, Ilmen and Volkhov, Lake Ladoga (Ladoga channels) and river Neva - the Gulf of Finland. The total length of the system from St. Petersburg to Rybinsk was 1309 miles. 04050004
5. After the failure of the work under the guidance of Dutch masters restructuring Volochok Hydraulic Systems Peter I instructs Mikhail Ivanovich Serdyukov (1677-1754), by birth or Kalmyk Mongols, bought in Central Asia and exported therefrom merchant M.G. Evreinov. Serdyukov attracted the attention of the king on fisheries in Astrakhan along with other counterman, P.P. Shafirov (1669-1739), whom Peter has determined to serve in the Ambassadorial order. Access to public and business activities now determined only by the abilities and did not depend on the accident of birth. The same goal was pursued and ranking, all ranks which took place gradually, and the king himself, receiving the rank for each service really rendered. 04050005
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| 30. Start Petersburg (1704) |
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| 31. M.I. Serdyukov |
6. The essence of the project Serdyukov approved by Peter boils down to eliminating aridity, the main drawback of the Volochok system. The works were to be made by Serdyukov at his own expense , for which Peter passed him at the mercy of customs, stationery and some other charges in Vishny Volochyok, provided the board with a penalties of merchant ships held by Volochok system, gave the right of Novgorod commercial vessels to the Novgorod trades person (so M.I. Serdyukov was called now) the right to hold unhindered for 50 years old mills and other institutions. Relying on the support of the king's, master hydraulics for two years and completed major works receiving Vyshnevolotskaya system in full control. The freight charge on the water road was about ten times lower than the cost of land transportation. This way to St. Petersburg delivered iron from Ural and bread from Volga. 04050008
7. Having used coercion for its own sake on merchants, Peter made sure that the number of ships visiting the port of St. Petersburg has grown from year to year and reached 180-year-vessels in 1724, while the number of foreign ships in Arkhangelsk quays in the same period decreased from 126 to 34. In addition to the tree in the case of tar, blubber and harvested on the shores of the White Sea products, Russian products in Arkhangelsk did not deliver: the rest were in the capital harbor. Trade through Arkhangelsk decreased 12-fold [52; 567]. 04050009
8. In 1726 the volume of foreign trade amounted to Arkhangelsk port (in rubles): Export - import and 285,387 - 35,846, and the port in St. Petersburg - respectively 2,403,423 and 1,549,697 rubles. [97; 103]. 04050010
9. Petersburg became the most important commercial and industrial center of the country. Here concentrated vast quantities of goods for export and import. Growing city needed consumer goods, raw materials for industry and the marketing of finished products. All this led to the expansion of trade and industrial relations, required the construction of advanced means of communication, artificial canals and seaports. 04050011
10. The second most important trading port became Riga, opening the gates for the flow of goods from chernozem (black mud) regions of Russia, are attracted to the Upper Oka. 04050012
11. Russian maritime trade almost exclusively focuses on the Baltic Sea, and this situation does not change before the beginning of the XIX century, When the importation of 85% and 91% of export falls on the Baltic Sea ports. 04050013
12. His task Peter considered not only the release of Russia to the sea, but also so that, according to his contemporaries, make their subjects these merchants and encourage them to ensure that domestic goods are transported and sold in foreign lands, not by other people nautical, but at their own expense and on their own ships. 04050014
13. In 1703, under the shelter of the air, on the Trinity Square, established Exchange as a place of regular meetings of merchants to conclude trade deals, agreements on the hiring of ships, information about prices, products and exchange rates. By the beginning of 1720 the St. Petersburg Stock Exchange, which was under control and strict control of the Commerce College, moved to a new building on the city islands. College of Commerce appointed brokers, usually from among the foreigners who knew the stock exchange practice in Europe, led by the corrugation broker. Brokers were sworn Exchange Committee from among the most respected and experienced business brokers. The first court-broker has become bankrupt English merchant S. Myuks appointed Peter I [65; 34]. 04050015
1. Traveling in Western Europe, Peter thoroughly acquainted with the guild system in Germany, studied Dutch shipbuilding, maritime trade and banking in England. In the French capital the king visited the factory, studied law, introduced by J.-B. Colbert on state regulation of industrial production. 04060001
1. Since 1717, the king issued a number of decrees relating to the development of the manufacturing industry in Russia, of a set of basic principles that make up the economic policies of Peter I.
2. Since 1711 begins a new direction of Peter's policy: easing the breech in favor of private enterprise. Appears prescription of the Manufactures College: "transfer of government factories already wound and those that will be instituted, to private individuals." This rule is especially eagerly applied to industrial and commercial enterprises, which have not been a success for treasury. There was a particular type of business, known under the name of landlords: such persons received public enterprises under certain special conditions. 04060107
3. In 1723, after a trip to Russia, the emperor came to the conclusion that the domestic manufacture, because of the competition of foreign products, progresses unsatisfactorily. The consequence of this conclusion was an order to impose duties on goods imported from overseas that are made in the Russian market. Decree of Peter installed a very peculiar, arithmetic scale determining duties on imported goods: if the domestic production of a product reaches one quarter of that volume, which were imported from abroad, the fee is equal to a quarter of its value; If the third - the fee was third of the price; if performed within the state by half against the importation, the fee is 50%; if production exceeds import, then - three quarters. Some exceptions to the tariff in 1724 were made for the Russian merchants, export and import of goods on the Russian ships. 04060108
1. Particularly noticeable for the population of the empire was the tax reform of Peter. Many years of the Great Northern War, the creation of a regular army and navy, as well as the primitive accumulation of capital as the basis of the industrial revolution demanded a sharp increase in treasury income. To this end, the homestead based tax was replaced by a capitation tax based on population census. The estimates for the Senate in 1724 from 14 million. The number of population of both sexes amounted up to 7 million. Males of tributary population were 5570 thousand, or 81%; at least 52% in the working age from 15 to 60 years, according to the current data [81; 261-262]. 04060201
2. Poll tax was 34% of government revenue; Second place goes to potatory income - 29%. Capitation census broadened the scope of serfdom. Forcing each landowner to hold public office and establishing uniform order of succession in all kinds of real estate owned by the nobility, Peter I merged fiefdoms and estates. On the other hand, the abolition of servile status, which previously was not subject to taxation, turned slaves into the state of serfs; they lost the remnants of the rights that they had before. For fiscal serfs were responsible landlords, whose power becomes unbounded. 04060202
3. During the first quarter of XVIII century the total amount of public money charges increased approximately 3-fold. In total, the number of ordinary cash taxes in the Petrine era reached 30; these were added to the numerous special charges (loan for artillery supplies; to build the Ladoga Canal, on forage for army regiments, etc., etc.). However, the magnitude of taxation in rubles per capita in 1724 amounted to 1.41 rubles. and decreased compared to 1680 (1.67 rub.) by 15% [81; 323]. 04060203
4. General roundup of everyman arranged income earners or industrialists, trying to offer the sovereign profit perpetrating an unusual collection of indirect taxes (with births and marriages in connection with their registration; the residue of salaries of officials in the amount of six-month salary with a new award rank; about natisnenii Seal a bill of sale and so on.). In addition, the dissenters had to pay taxes at double rate; all paid fines for wearing a beard and neispovedovanie and talk in church. In the Volga region after the Bulavin uprising there was a tax on the eyes with a different shades of black and gray. 04060204
5. Peter established the post of Master of Requests at the Senate to investigate complaints of petitioners, to monitor the speedy completion of cases and rights. 04060205
6. Peter's pribylschiki suggested drunkenness and lazily working artisans to punish not only fine, but Batong, or to be kept in chain and iron two or three days. Forbidden was begging: the secondary detection of physically healthy beggar ment that he was exiled to hard labor. In Russia, many divorced runaway. Fled from conscription, tax, from recruitment to work on the construction of St. Petersburg, the canal connecting the Baltic Sea to the Caspian Sea, the Volga and the Don. Fled south and Stone, smashing the path of the manor and estates. 04060206
7. Peter's reforms and the creation of two hundred thousandth army led to a reduction of one-third of farms and homesteads, i.e. households which to cultivated the land, raised cattle, developed crafts. The main causes of the ruin of households were considered: 1) taking in recruits, workers and artisans to 20%; 2) ran - 35%; 3) died - 30%; 4) Other - 15% [7; 266, 520]. 04060207
1. Remarkable phenomenon in the literature of the Petrine era was the "Book of Poverty and Wealth" peasant I.T. Pososhkov (1652-1726), who had decided to talk about self-taught political economy - the means to multiply the growth of population and avert poverty. 04070001
2. "Collecting salt fees Pososhkov noticed in the manuscript, to Peter in Burmistrov and barmen, managers and employees of thousands of five, six or more there, and all of them, if the worms ate into the salt, and the food itself acquired from the same salt". 04070002
3. Charges really melted, passing through the hands of countless clerks. In the times of Peter the shortage of budget revenues was significant: from 100 rubles to the collected tax-paying Treasury reached 30 rubles, And the remaining 70 rubles greedy officials divided among themselves. To this helped apathy active, productive part of the peasant class, on which falls the major financial burden and obligations in kind. In the perennial war years have documented requisitions from the peasant household, 40 times the amount of poll tax. So we can appreciate the motto of one of Peter's major bankers, Baron J. Fredericks: war feeds the world depletes. 04070003
4. IT Pososhkov came from a family of ancient craftsmen silversmiths, were part of the palace nepashenny peasants; poor layman, the village Pokrovsky farmer - so Pososhkov signed their works. LN Tolstoy, intending to make Pososhkov one of the heroes of his novel about the era of Peter I, imagined it like this: a man short, dry, reddish, with a small beard and all freckled. 04070004
5. Archived data paint Pososhkov master money and a gun case, who took important orders and had the opportunity to present their inventions to the king. As an entrepreneur, Pososhkov organized a number of factories, linen factories, sulphur mine, engaged in production of paints and even oil. The recent economic now a wealthy merchant Pososhkov was a textile factory on an empty Treasury Court in Novgorod. At the end of his life, he rightly calls himself the last man and opposes miserable people. 04070005
6. "The Book of Poverty and Wealth" plan as a renewal of Russia, ordering its economic life of the author intended for submission to a single argument to bombastic White Eagle explicit truth-seeker, an unshakable support pillar of Emperor of Russia, Peter the Great, a true autocrat. 04070006
7. Peter of this work did not have time to read, and Kupetsky man Ivan Tikhon Pososhkov son seven months after the death of the emperor became convict and was taken under guard to the secret office. In several interviews, "Words and Deeds" mentioned searching for books Ivan Pososhkov, the call to scarcity of wealth. 04070007
8. Pososhkov assumed that there are offenders and fans of unrighteousness, envious people who learning "about my misery, will not allow me to live light or small time, but stop my life." The last phrase inscribed above the line, reading. 04070008
9. But the matter does not seem to have been about the miserable offenders, but about the plausibility of the author's program points. Here is one of them concerning the peasantry: 04070009
10. "The farmer is never scanty, if the king's extortion to collect him on the amount of land that the farmer plows for himself if these levies are collected at a convenient time for the peasant, if landlords imposes the tax on the land he is cultivating and excessive taxes and work with it will not be required. " 04070010
11. The plight of the peasants and the underdevelopment of the financial system (with empty no income does occur) were, in the opinion Pososhkov, the main causes of poverty of the country, its economic backwardness. Poll tax, does not account for differences in the economic situation of the taxpayers, the author condemned; abundance of internal duties, in his opinion, interfere with the development of economic ties and exchange. Customs duty must be the same, because the ox and the skin is one going. 04070011
12. Pososhkov in additon to material wealth (wealth of state, treasury, households), defines and immaterial wealth, by which is meant truth: good governance of the country, just laws, righteous judgment, and links these conditions with an increase in the actual material well-being. In this unidentified wealth with money consisted Pososhkov's main difference from Western mercantilists. Assuming this as an important source of wealth for industrial and agricultural labor, Pososhkov was for several decades ahead of the founder of the school of the Physiocrats F. Quesnay (1694-1774). 04070012
13. Author of "The Book of Poverty and Wealth" sets itself high and ambitious goal: "in order that all of our great Russia refreshed both spiritually and in citizenship." 04070013
14. Nine chapters (1. On spirituality. 2. On military matters. 3. Justice. 4. Merchant. 5. Arts. 6. Robbers. 7. Peasantry. 8. Earth matters. 9. On the king's interest) intended in the first place to be read to the king, are a synthesis of experience of an astute journalist, a patriot who knew Russia and its suburbs, endowed with great strength of theoretical thought and literary talent. 04070014
15. There is no shadow in Pososhkov of the old Moscow national and religious self-importance; He recognizes the need to learn from foreigners, indicates in many foreign statutes an example worthy of imitation: "In German lands authorities value people, especially commercial", "and therefore are rich that they live sparing." But against the high economic culture of foreigners origin, the Russian thinker puts the natural qualities of his own people: 04070015
16. "Many Germans are smarter than we in sciences, but our sharpness, by the grace of God, is no worse than theirs, and they curse us in vain." 04070016
17. On trade with the West: 04070017
18. "For us, even though they did not carry their goods to us, we can live without their goods, but they without our goods ten years can not live"; manifested merchant natural distrust of foreigners, "It is dangerous to believe them outright, they are not just well-wishers to us, and their teachings is not necessary to believe outright." 04070018
19. Economic concept Pososhkov included payment of labor according to hours, promotion of invention in the country, no export of raw materials and the finished product, reproduction factories and industries, tax transformations (introduction of the principle of universality of taxes; replacement of poll tax by tax on land, lowering taxes for farmers; the imposition of tributes for nobility lands; dependence the value of the tax on the size of land ownership or industry). 04070019
20. Pososhkov optimistic dreams of reform in Russia and is desolately looking at reality. He accuses Moscow authorities, protection by bribes to foreign merchants; reports that for 100 rubles bribes foreign merchants could get half a million profit. On the other hand, the nobility, the clergy, monasteries traded on a large scale without paying taxes to the treasury. 04070020
21. The author has not disregarding hefty archaism, seen by foreigners in Russian merchants: they did not realize or do not know that a small part of the turnover and profit can deliver much more benefits; reproached Moscow "guests" who consider it better to leave goods lying in the port for several years, rather than sell it at a reduced price. 04070021
22. Severe is also his condemnation of drunkenness: "From drinking nation suffers and at the end death comes, and robbery and theft of as a consequence of drinking are multiplied ... Timeless drinking brings nothing good, but contrarily brings the mind torn down and common damage, deprivation of possessions and untimely death" . 04070022
23. And here's a tip to Peter about the juridical proceedings: 04070023
24. "And for the sake of common life, ashche our great monarch will command the court so that what is for the farmer, so that is for merchant man, poor and rich, so is the soldier, so is to officer, nothing canceled also for colonels and generals, and the court is to to inflict proximity, to every man and to anybody do it easy to access it, so to commoner, as to seviceman, then that of the statute is not something that officers separate from soldiers, and farmers will not offend. " 04070024
25. Like mercantilists in the West Pososhkov recognized the decisive role of the state in economic development and interpreted the importance of money for domestic circulation nominalistically. He did not recognize the function of money as a measure of value, money in connection with the goods, but believed that the rate of money is determined by the order of the king, that is, his stamp. But money in foreign trade, in his opinion, should be complete: bargaining a great thing. 04070025
26. Mercantilism commercial and industrial supplemented in Pososhkov requirement peasant reform, ranging from the location of houses and farm buildings in villages and ending with the Department of peasant land from the landlords, "does not compute it by the landlords." According to V.O. Kliuchevsky, "among any thoughts of the peasantry, the literary expression of which made Pososhkov still smoldering or already was in sight, the idea that the power of the landlords over the peasants is no real right, as draft animals, and public order, which in turn will be removed from the landlords, as is removed the post from officials for seniority or superfluousness" [60; 126-129]. 04070026
27. The relationship between payments and allotment projects Pososhkov can be designated a brief formula: tax on land, and the land on the tax. 04070027
28. From the "Book of Poverty and Wealth" it became clear that the burden of Peter's mercantilism (96% of the treasury Peter spent on the needs of the army and navy) was assigned to the peasantry: the center of gravity of the financial sector was capitation tax on state and serfs. Unlike Russia, Western governments (including the monarchies) reached the military objectives of the organization of monetary financial sector based on the bourgeoisie. 04070028
29. Successor of Peter restricted the civil rights of peasants and deprived of their right to complain to the court in the Lord. At the same time, the gentlemen were entitled to invoke their peasants to Siberia and sell them, even with the separation of wife from her husband, children from their parents. On the other hand, after Peter the Great compulsory service for the nobility gradually weakened and finally was completely abolished by Peter III (1728-1762) in the year of his death. 04070029
1. Instead of capitalist production by civilian workers in Russia, large manufactories were maintained by using forced labor. Factory assumed the character of working at home, order was supported by cane discipline and encouragement to labor was serious punishment. In the nature of such work was the main reason for the slow development of the domestic industry during the XVIII century. 04070101
2. However, the main vector of the Petrine reforms directed towards the full development of the productive forces of Russia, raising the domestic trade, industry, agriculture, strengthening the economic power of Russia and its economic independence. 04070102
3. The trade balance is in favor of Russia. If in 1710 Arkhangelsk took 153 foreign ship, then in 1724 in St. Petersburg it was one of 240 merchant ships, and together with other newly conquered Baltic harbors (Riga, Revel et al.) In 1725 arrived in Russia 914 ships. 04070103
4. Achievements in industry were reflected in the country's exports. If in the XVII century composition of export goods was limited mainly to raw materials, whereas in 1726 52% of exports were manufactured goods, especially iron and canvas. 04070104
5. In 1733, work began on the construction of a promising road connection from St. Petersburg to Moscow with stops in Novgorod, with branches to Tikhvin, Borovichi and other cities. 04070105
6. One anecdotal example perhaps best characterizes the reformist nature of the first Russian emperor: to Peter king bowed at his feet; Peter, to destroy custom ordered to beat whip those who dare him to bow at his feet. Freedom he introduced by the whip. 04070106
1. Peter's strategy had been building formidable obstacles to domestic entrepreneurs, but departing from it was declared harmful and strictly punished. Even liberal Catherine II (1729-1796) at the beginning of her reign (1762), assigning A.A. Viazemsky (1727-1793) to procurator-general most secretly admonished: 05010001
2. "The Russian Empire is so extensive that in addition to the autocratic sovereign, any other form of government is harmful to it; For all other are slower in performance and a great multitude of different passions in themselves exist, all of which lead to the fragmentation of power and strength, but one sovereign, having all the ways to curb any harm, can read common good and extend the word of mercy to everybody." [19,т. II; 156]. 05010002
3. Only in the manifesto of Alexander I (1777-1825) before the establishment of the State Council in 1810 it was realized that the "true reason in improving the state system of Russia is that along the education and expansion of public affairs, be established the image of solid and unshakeable control by law "that" their subjects should be protected with good civil laws." Author of this manifesto dangerous innovator Count M.M. Speransky (1772-1839) from his imprisonment in Perm explained to the emperor that the whole reason of his plan is to ensure that through laws the power of the government is established on permanent basis and at the same time is confirmed the dignity and strength of the power. 05010003
1. Russia has long belonged to the number of countries that recognize the need for written laws as rules of administration and courts. Monuments of veche republican legislation in Veliky Novgorod and Pskov are a credit to the era in which they appeared (before joining the Moscow). The relation of government officials to the people the princes determined by charters, and by Law sought to protect the people from tyranny and extortion. Legality in the management tried to achieve also Peter I, establishing the peer system, which limited the space of wilfulness and deceit in juridical practice to the extent that the court collegium in itself was liberally minded. 05010101
2. Patronage and fear of the laws under the influence of the French Enlightenment, Montesquieu (1689-1755) attempted to build on the true philosophical wisdom of Ekaterina I. In the "Mandate" Empress outlined three central postulates:
3. The concept of economic freedom from the legal point of view presupposes and requires two conditions:
4. Duty-free Russian law allows marketing of rural industries (flax, hemp, livestock, poultry, wood) and products such as salt, wool, hair, bristles, feathers, raw hides, wood, etc. All other types of industrial and trading activities required a certificate that differed by merchants, guild and industry, defining the rights of the state and granted the right to trade in general. The right to open a particular industrial or commercial establishments was also granted by a special ticket, which was required for the opening of merchants, bankers, insurance, etc. offices, stores, shops, cellars, etc. stowage, tavern institutions, baths, fishponds, factories, plants, various factory and craft establishments. 05010104
5. Regulating business activity, Catherine government pursued the policy of encouraging civilian rather than bonded labor. In 1762 prohibited the purchase of the factories to peasants from the land and without land. 05010105
6. By the beginning of the reign of Catherine, who became Empress of Russia in 1762, after the overthrow of Peter III using the Guard, in Russia there were 984 factories. Their numbers grew and by the end of the reign of Catherine II it was 3161 companies. 05010106
7. In the writings and notes filed in the name of the young Empress, polar views were expressed on the economy of Russia. "What Your Majesty found at her accession to the throne? - Asks the compiler of one note, very gloomy about the economic state of the country. - Government revenue is the poorest possible and in extreme disorder, plundering the treasury and devoid of a large part of possible income, miscellaneous income needlessly cast to particular people; weak governance, no direct commerce with foreign nations; no institution of goods for distribution on Russian ships; internal commerce all restricted; people are already scarce, the war is even more reducing; nobility, burdened in useless luxury, and people suffering from oppression and poverty in the absence of crafts and ways to productive work "[59; 120]. 05010107
8. In other notes an optimistic view could be found of commerce and productivity of Russia. The authors found that the Russian ruble in the international exchange was above its actual value; the balance of trade is to the benefit of Russia: export exceeds import. From this it followed the advice to the Empress that government measures aimed at the development of trade must not encompass any drastic changes; the latter "the current blooming trade can get hit and suffer a loss." 05010108
9. Due to the fact that bargaining is a matter of ease, without haggling no benefits on the market, and liberty is the main tool for the dissemination of commerce, Catherine from the beginning of her reign, started to abhor and destroy many monopolies, exclusive rights and privileges in all sectors of the trade to attain liberty of commerce. 05010109
10. "Count Yakov Alexandrovich appealed to the Empress through St. Petersburg military governor Bruce after his first visit to Russia. - In St. Petersburg, the price of bread has risen, and you attribute the cause to thin seedlings. I can swear that wherever we passed, bread was as good as you can only wish, and in St. Petersburg sell bread only 5 or 6 merchants, who are the last of the rogues, and they should seek to enter into bread bargaining more merchants to bring this bargaining from the hands of speculators." [59; 120-121]. 05010109
11. A year later it was allowed without exception to start all kinds of factories, "Especially those things which the maintenance regiments needed, ie using cloth, leather, clay as raw material, for buttonholes, linen, horse covers, sheep-fur coats, and other useful". 05010110
12. In 1767 Catherine II spoke out against state-owned monopolies. "When this factory, - was stated in the decree on the department consisting under War Commissariat, breech-leather factory - is not in state hands, then I drink tea and skins will be enough available. Monopolization attached to this breech factory, is harmful to people, and the profit obtained is not enough to cover the harm." To this economically very competent passage in the coveTo has been added that in general "no cases relating to trade and factories can be started by compulsion, and cheapness is born only from the great number of sellers and the multiplication of the free goods" [59; 121]. 05010111
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| 32. G.A. Potemkin |
1. The era after Peter I is characterized as extremely increasing role and political influence of the nobility, and the strengthening of merchant capital. Sources of capital accumulation are increasingly becoming profitable government contracts, interest-free loans, repurchase and other privileges. 05010201
2. According to statements of the Board of Manufactures of 328 Russian factories 66 belonged to the nobility. Princes N.B. Yusupov (1750-1831), a well-known philanthropist, and a favorite of the Empress G.A. Potemkin (1739-1791) arrange at their estates large enterprises for the production of cloth and silk fabrics. To Nobility is also granted the privilege to engage in distilling [65; 32]. 05010202
3. After the final annexation of Crimea to Russia in July 1783, based on the latest winemaking achievements of European science began to study also Prince G.A. Potemkin-Tauride. In the region was opened a special school for the training of winemakers, practitioners, colonists, distributed free vines, and those responsible for their destruction were punished with rods. 05010203
4. Annexing the Crimea to Russia opened up the possibility of building the Black Sea merchant fleet, as well as ports in Odessa and Taganrog. 05010204
1. Under Catherine II it was legally free access to start as merchants for city inhabitants (with solid capital), and even for farmers (with the same capital, as well as complicated bureaucratic procedures, such as the consent of the peasant community, the city magistrate and having obtained a certificate from the landlord of the estate). 05010301
2. In the production of cotton cloth on the basis of traditional peasant industries, championship win just businessmen from the peasants. Among them the largest and best known for their production plant are: Association of Manufactures in Shuya (founded in 1718), the Partnership Vyaznikovskaya manufactory S.I. Senkova in Vyazniki Vladimir Province. (Founded in 1765), Association of Intercession Manufactory P.N. Hraznova in Ivanovo-Voznesensk (1775), Association of Nikolskaya Manufactory of S.V. Morozov, Sons and Co. in Vladimir Province. (1797). In these villages from time immemorial have made for themselves and to be sold linen matter: canvases and thin linen. Merchant Maxim Zatrapeznov starts manufacturies in Yaroslavl. 05010302
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| 33. The tricotage manufactures of S.I. Senkov |
3. One of the founders of the cotton industry in Kostroma province was Pyotr Kuzmich Konovalov, from the serf labor using patrimony of A.P. Khrushchev. The popularity of Peter Kuzmich on Vichuga is mentioned in the novel of P.P. Melnikov "In the Woods": "And as a matter of conceiving something? We made contract with a clever person with talent, belonging to the ancient piety, nicknamed Konovalov, who started a small weaving establishments, with a light hand his business progressed, and progressed"[73; 54-55]. Great-grandson of P.K. Konovalov and the last owner of the firm, Alexander Konovalov (1875-1948), was known as the Minister of Trade and Industry and Deputy Chairman of the Coalition Provisional Government in March 1917. 05010304
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| 34. Label of I.M. Zatrapeznov's Big Factory in Yaroslavl |
4. At the end of the XVIII century in Moscow there is a textile factory, (Prokhorovskaya Tryokhgorny manufactory). Profitable textile enterprises owned by the serf S.V. Morozov (1770-1862) helped him to be bought free from landlord for 17 thousand rubles only in 1820. 05010306
5. It was the textile industry that quickly seized the domestic market, opened in Russia perspective of capitalist accumulation in a society with a minimum amount of gross surplus product. 05010307
6. The glass and crystal factory in Mozhaisk district of Moscow Province, founded in 1723 by Vasily Maltsev, marked the beginning of an amazing kind of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs of Russia. In 1775 Catherine II called Maltsev in the hereditary nobility. By the end of the XVIII century Maltsev owned more than fifteen crystal-glass enterprises and a number of other industries. 05010308
7. History had preserved the judicial correspondence "In the case of a Malchev persuader", from which it follows that "the servant of Thomas Maltsev secretly engaged the master Semyon Pankov, and now the furnace crystal factory in the city of Romanov is redeemed and people go there without work, receiving considerable annual income." Manufakture-board takes proceedings concluded that entrepreneurs Maltsev have right, because, at the request of Pankov, "There is no case of court here, and the work is worthwhile, and I flatly refuse to return" [73; 125]. 05010309
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| 35. Grandfather, father and son Konovalovs |
8. As the founder of Russian theater, Fyodor Volkov (1729-1763) is revered, the son of Yaroslavl merchant who took an active part in the affairs of trade. This is what has caused a number of his visits to St. Petersburg, where a young Volkov first saw the Italian opera, German performances of the troupe Ackerman and Russian amateur theatricals. The rumor about a theater he had created in Yaroslavl reached the Empress Elizabeth (1709-1761), who ordered him to be brought to the capital. Volkov's troupe left for St. Petersburg, and since then opens the official history of Russian theater. For successful presentation of F.G. Volkov, "the owner of deep mind, full of dignity, who had more knowledge and could be a statesman," received knighthood and seven hundred serfs. 05010311
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| 36. Fyodor Volkov |
1. Among Catherine era entrepreneurs were many foreigners. The best porcelain factory now in Russia was founded by Francis Jakovljevic Gardner, an English merchant, moved to Russia in 1746 and established porcelain producton on the land of prince Urusova. 05010401
2. Processing and ammunition production plant for the marine and coastal artillery and warships on Kotlin Island founded a well-known throughout Europe Scot Charles Gascoigne, a great connoisseur of Foundry. At the invitation of the government, he came to Russia in 1776, founded the Kronstadt foundry, moved in 1801 by decree of Paul I, closer to the capital, to the quarter of a mile from the bridge on Kalinkin Peterhof road, later became known as the Putilov factory. 05010402
3. By the middle of the XVIII century in St. Petersburg exist nobility and merchant banks, in 1786 Assignation Bank for organizing the circulation of the first Russian paper money. Accounting office of the bank, posing entrepreneurs loans not only on the security of goods, but also under the bill, created in Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Odessa, Taganrog, Feodosia. The value of the bank loan was dependent on the guild merchant and ranged from 7.8 thousand up to 68 thousand rub. [65; 35]. By the end of the XVIII century was enabled the business of bankers and money lenders in southern Russia - in Kiev, Odessa, Berdichev. 05010403
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| 37. Street masquerade in Moscow. 1722 |
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| 38. Baron Stieglitz |
4. Court bankers from the time of Peter I became foreigners: a native of Holland, Baron I. Frederick, an Englishman R. Sutherland, a native of Portugal O.P. Veglio. In 1826, the title of Baron was awarded to German banker Stieglitz, whose son Alexander Stieglitz headed the State Bank of Russia. 05010406
5. Among the traders, who sent their goods by sea from St. Petersburg at the end of 1700s the only 10-15 per cent were Russian [65; 33]. 05010407
6. Under Catherine II in 1769 for the first time the government resorted to an overseas loan. Further, these calls will be scheduled for requirements for means of payment for overseas payments and government budget deficits. 05010407
1. In the 60s of the XVIII century economic problems begin to occupy the then Russian intelligentsia. In the development of economic issues in one form or another were involved all the great minds of the time: Lomonosov, Tatishchev, Shcherbatov, Vyazemskij, Derzhavin, Radishchev and others. 05010501
2. The main reason for the slow industrial development of Russia, the poor quality of goods and high prices for them remained bonded labor, the right to use of which was not only the privilege of the nobility, but also merchants. In Western Europe in those years were passing the last remnants of personal dependence of the peasants and was available for the conditions for the deployment of a free labor market, to strengthen individual peasant farming and private land ownership, involvement in the sphere of land for sale. 05010502
3. An important feature of agriculture in most of the Russian state was unusually short for agricultural societies operating season, which lasted five months, while in Western Europe in the fields do not work only in December and January. Russian peasantry, like the spring and autumn migration of birds moved in the fall to the city, and in the spring to the village: up to one-third of the adult male population engaged in seasonal work. For example, the average farm in Tver province received in the 80s. XVIII century income from the sale of its products and products worth 10.6 rubles., while for normal reproduction was necessary to have 23-26 rubles. [52; 548]. Farmer badly needed earnings in the field of crafts, commercial activities and trade. Obrok peasants were hired to work at the factory on free hiring. Direct promotion involving the bulk of the peasantry in the trade and industrial activities dictated by the need to help survive the harsh vast mass of the population of non-agricultural areas. 05010503
4. Noble government of Catherine II, pursuing purely practical purposes, to create conditions for industrial activities outside agriculture. 05010504
5. Peasant and petty trade handicraft production displeased merchants. The manufacturers of the merchants did not enjoy sympathy within business nobility, and sought a monopoly in the trade. 05010505
6. Measure of social stratification of urban population of Russia in the period under review can serve Taxation its various layers. Taxpayers third guild (or estate) paid under Catherine II in a circle on 42 cop; payers of the second guild - 3 rub. 06 cop. And the first - for 32 rubles. 21 kopecks. In other words, a first-class citizens, even if we assume uniformity of taxation, earned at least more than 70 times superior to tertiary income. Still lower outside the guild, stood by the people, which included all the laborers, find hiring. Aggregated data of the Commission on Commerce for the whole Posad Russia 1760s give its structure (in %): the tip of trading - 1.9; small shop trade - 40.7; artisans - 15.4; living menial work or no work, 42% [60; 139]. 05010506
1. On one of the faces of the monument to Russian explorer and navigator Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov (1747-1795) in Irkutsk are inscribed words of G.R. Derzhavin "Russian pigeon is buried here; he swam over the Sea, opened unknown lands." They belong to a man of stamina and dedication the ships of whom furrowed waters of the Bering and Ohotan seas, the Pacific Ocean. He founded the first Russian settlement in North America and organized the Russian-American Company. 05020101
2. A young merchant from the ancient Rylsk, born into a wealthy family, appeared in Siberia in 1773 and started as clerk and servant. A year later, in company with other entrepreneurs went to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Okhotsk and in Kamchatka. Having built at his own expense ship "St. Paul" in 1780 brought on the Kuril Islands in Nizhnekamchatsk a cargo of 936 nautical beaver pelts, 1580 blue foxes and 34,000 seal furs, at the price of 74240 rubles. ["Questions of History", 1973, № 1, p. 211]. Over the next two years Shelihov ships from newfound Aleutians take as consignments skins of 2 thousand beavers, 40 thousand seals, 6 thousand blue foxes, 1 thousand tons of ivory and 500 pounds of whalebone. Moreover, thinking in a statesman way Shelihov set a goal to bring the inhabitants of the occupied islands Russian citizenship, to get residency, where possible, and then took care of his own benefits and acquired new treasures in distant countries. Shelikhov builds the first school for Eskimo children, encourages the adoption of Christianity, acquired Russian citizenship to those wishing it, enlists them to the service of the company, which became a basic factor in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. 05020102
3. Describing his journey from Okhotsk to the Eastern Ocean and further to the American coast, T.P. Shelikhov observes: "Justice must be given to this people in the sharpness of mind for their children who very soon understood their lessons, and some up to my departure so learned to speak in Russian, that you could without unnecessary trouble understand them." After two years in Alaska Shelikhov chastised his successors "act settling Russian cooperatives settling so as to reconcile with Americans and bring the glorification of the Russian state on the holy earth of America and California up to 40th degree" [ibid, P. 212]. 05020103
4. In Irkutsk he composes proposals to the government on the settlement of Russian America, about the construction of fortresses there, on the organization of the Russian-American Company and asks 20 thousand Rubles loans and the army to serve in the American possessions. 05020104
5. Especial coldness of Catherine II marked the answers to the requests of the entrepreneur: 05020105
6. "Military people in Siberia still need a hundred people there, but thousand here. Much trouble in the Pacific will bring no solid result. Trading is a matter, and possessing a different matter "[ibid, P. 212]. 05020106
7. However, in 1788 T.N. Shelikhov was awarded a medal at St Andrew's tape, a golden sword and a diploma that allowed him to continue the work in the discovery of the islands. Soon the Russian capital of New-Arkhangelsk for America originated there as the Russian possessions. As if dreams of Shelikhov had come true about the establishment of Slavorossii on the shores of the New World, but in the 49th year of life, in his prime, July 20, 1795 breaks the life of Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov. The company he created was formally established and got the concession for 1799-1800 biennium and using the permission of Paul I (1754-1801) for industrial institutions, became located in the north-west coast of America and the islands of the Aleutian and Kuriles, with the obligation to nourish the local Russian population and attract settlers there. 05020107
8. At the beginning of the XIX century inhabitants were allowed to engage in trade. Among the shareholders of inhabitants established by Shelikhov appear figures such as Arakcheev and Benkendorf. State dignitary H.I. Benkendorf (1749-1823) was the chairman of three joint-stock companies. In the Russian-American Company shareholders belonged Count NP Rumyantsev (1754-1826) and Count NS Mordvins (1754-1845), some members of the imperial household. Among manufacturers names such as princes Bariatinskii, Yusupov, Shakhovsky, Khovanskii, Urusov, Viazemsky, Count Razumovsky, Bezborodko and others. 05020108
9. In 1867, Russian America, Slavorossiya, the brainchild of T.N. Shelikhov, was sold to the United States for 7 million 200 thousand Dollars. Sale was pushed by the imperial family, grand dukes, uncle of Alexander II. But domestic business or the extent to which people are reaching is not determined by the aristocratic and bureaucratic class. In Catherine's time mark in the country's history left entrepreneurs of humble origins, Russian pigeons in the business. 05020109
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| 39. 05020110E:Michael Chulkov |
1. Creating manufactory not leaning on serfs, forced labor, but on waged labor reminds historian and economist MD Chulkov, a native of commoners (the soldier's son), actor, collector of Russian fairy tales and songs, publisher of "Mockingbird." All listed occupations Chulkov was known to our contemporaries, but his main work, titled "Historical Description of Russian commerce at all ports and borders from ancient times to now present" in 26 volumes, published in the 80s of the XVIII century, for which the author received the rank of nobility, remains unread. Under commerce the author understands the development of trade, industry, transport and communications, credit and money circulation. Since 1772 M.D. Chhulkov worked as a secretary of the Commerce College (one time with A.N. Radishchev) and sought protection of industry by the state, "at public cost until the goods are equal in quality with foreign and M.D. Chulkov can sell it with the same price." But the treasury activities are necessary only for the initial example, and the "each seeking own interest adapts to own position, not reporting to anyone but taking care of things at his own liking." [60; 139-140]. 05020201
1. As this arbitrariness could determine the fate of entrepreneurial people, so we shall trace the fate of P.P. Rychkov (1712-1777), whom contemporaries called the "Pigeon of the Orenburg region." Major Russian economist of the XVIII century for whom it was specifically established the title of Corresponding Member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, he was born in Vologda, in a poor merchant family, was educated at home (not unnecessarily for fatherland, but also not useless for himself). Still in youth he was ordered to the director of linen factories of Dutch merchant P.P. Thames, from whom he learned the German language, mastered the theory and practice of accounting records and balance sheet accounting. To that knowledge he was invited when being appointed the director of the plants of the Englishman V. Elmsen. 05020301
2. Soon in Petersburg crossed the paths of P.P. Rychkov and I.K. Kirilov (1689-1737), one of the pupils and staff members of Peter I, the author of the first "Statistical, economic and geographical description of Russia", when the Senate Secretary, hard-working and selfless staff member, dedicated to the public interest, was collecting expedition to Siberia. 05020302
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| 40. I.I. Rychkov |
3. More than forty years of his life devoted PP Rychkov to Orenburg, which after his inception has become an international trade fair in the East, and the port of refuge, in the words Rychkov, for many Asian nations, bringing together the interests of the Russian government and enterprising foreign merchants, first of all - English. Orenburg exchange yard gave rise to new shopping centers in the desert, grew caravan trade, excelled Russian bargaining. 05020304
4. In January 1759 Collegial Councillor PP Rychkov, at the suggestion of MV Lomonosov, was admitted to the established class of Corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences for his work "Topography of Orenburg Province" - historical, geographical and economic description on statistical basis. 05020305
5. First, this scientist responded to the challenge of M.V. Lomonosov collecting samples of minerals and ores, sending them to form the "Russian mineralogy" by publishing in 1764 in the "Proceedings of the Free Economic Society," his report "On copper ores and minerals in the Orenburg province." 05020306
6. The main objective of economic policy in the Orenburg region, this autodidact scientist believed multiplying all sorts of plants, manufactur autodidacting, increasing treaties between them. Foresightfully he assessed also steppe agriculture, which might be the most useful and profitable of all the arts and crafts; offering as reasonable limit the labor of the peasants work for the landlord to three days, the same for his own work, and Sunday for the rest. 05020307
7. The motto of the P.P. Rychkov, risen to the nobility at the end of life, and becoming factory governor, remained: "I love the truth and can not help but only write it, and also tell it" [60; 140]. 05020308
1. The privileged position of the nobility as the power between the monarch and the rest of the nation was finally formed during the reign of Catherine II, in the Letter of Patent in 1762, which gives a special status and honor to the nobility and freedom of the nobles from compulsory service. 05030001
1. "The denomination of Noble is a consequence of the qualities and virtues shown in old governing positions", said the law - thus directing to service the most merited, gaining to offsprings the noble position." Under noble position law meant all those "who were born from noble ancestors or to whom monarch this dignity had bestowed" [13; 285]. 05030101
2. Dignity and nobility of blood freed nobles not only of the performance of services and catering, of personal taxes, but also of the application to them of the general criminal laws. Property owned primarily under conditions of service becomes free, complete and inherited property. Being signed into nobility became the dream of every tax paying person. 05030102
3. Curiously, the southern Altai, included in the Russian, were burdened with payment to treasury by animal skins (sable and proteins), and in the case of elusive beast - by money. In 1763, Altai underwent census, which resulted to that in the Altai to zaysan (foremen kind) were handed copies of acts of decrees by Catherine, bestowing various benefits: title zaisan equated with rank of Major, they were exempted from payment of tribute and got rid of corporal punishment. 05030103
1. At the same time Catherine II sought to carry out the idea of Western European middle class, which, according to the Empress, pops out from the mass of vile people with high morality and hard work in the field of urban crafts, involving art, science, navigation, commerce and handicrafts. By this city townsfolk Catherine II refers those who had in the form of house or other building, land, generally immovable property acquired by way of trade, needlework and crafts, which for the average kind of people could be established hereditary. 05030201
2. This attention was due not so much to the fact that trade and craft class consisted mostly of urban inhabitants, as the desire to revive industrial production in Russia, to strengthen its pace. According to the Empress, the active part of the population, on solid morality, will receive encouragement to industry-based position, and the state can expect of it a lot of good [19, t. II; 371]. 05030202
3. Almost every volume of Complete Collection of Laws (COR) for the years of reign of Catherine II (1762-1796) we find several decrees concerning plans and coats of arms of cities, and during her reign she erected 216 cities, including Ekaterinodar built in the Kuban region by F.A. Potemkin in honor of the Empress. 05030203
4. In addition, in 1785, when Letters of patent cities were published, the president of the Commerce College Count A.R. Vorontsov (1741-1805) found that the board "cannot know the essence of Russian cities" because no statistics exists neither on commercial and industrial population, nor about the industry as the manufacturing and craft, and asked the governor to send this information to the College [19, t. II; 382]. 05030204
5. Urban society, the average number of which under Catherine II were mostly tradesmen and merchants. The former, by the decree of 17 March 1775 was ordered to be referred all those commercial and industrial population, who had capital of not more than 500 rubles; all the others who have capital of more than 500 rubles, constituted the merchants. Merchants were allowed immunity from Tax per head, replaced by one percent collection of the declared merchant capital. 05030205
6. This resolution, common at the same time on Belarusian territory, destroyed, for example, national isolation of the Jews, which Catherine II treated sympathetically, expecting from them economic benefits for the country. To Jews in Russia was then awarded personal freedom, which Russian peasants were deprived for almost a hundred years, until 1861. 05030206
7. For township inhabitants the taxation unit remained the soul, but for the merchants a new tax-paying unit was established, a certain percentage of working capital. Merchants were also released from natural conscription: instead they were charged 500 rubles for each recruit. 05030207
8. Nurturing the development of the domestic industry had led to the release of a special privileged group of factory owners, who from the time of Peter I were exempt from various public services, also Catherine II relieved such persons from paying interest charges on capital by charging them an industry fee on factories. 05030208
9. Access for the petty bourgeoisie or merchants, to employment in trade, craft, industry for any other classes of persons was legally free. The farmer, being a serf, could engage in any industry, providing a local magistrate discharge certificate from the landlord and enrolling in one of the guilds according to his capital value. But legislative regulation of commercial and industrial urban population did not allow the free transfer of these persons from one city to another. 05030209
1. To real urban philistines were counted in 1775 those who own in that city house or other structure or place, or land [18; 421]. They were entered into the so-called inhabitant book. 05030301
2. City philistine book divided citizens in addition to independent foreign and non-resident guests into six parts, not primarily on economic census, but on the basis of occupation or industry. 05030302
3. Into the first part it was proper to attribute persons belonging to the inhabitants of this city, those who owned certain real estate (house, land, etc.). The second group of inhabitants were merchants of all three guilds who had declared the capital from 10,000 to 50,000 rubles. (first guild), from 5,000 to 10,000 rubles. (second guild), and from 1000 to 5000 rubles. (third guild). 05030303
4. The third group is credited with all craftsmen recorded in the shops. 05030304
5. The fourth group treated nonresident and foreign guests assigned to this urban society with the industrial purposes. 05030305
6. Fifth grade, small but important, included urban aristocracy: representatives of first-class merchants, eminent citizens with significant capital and trade turnover (50 or more thousand rub.), as well as scientists, having academic and university certificates, painters, sculptors, composers, as a member of the academy or having evidence of their academic rank and art. Eminent citizens were endowed with certain rights of the nobility, including the freedom from taxes. 05030306
7. Sixth grade is the permanent industrial and urban working population, class townspeople who "are in the city or the old-timers who were born in other parts of the city where philistine books were not made; industry, handicrafts or earning livelihood in the city" [18; 423]. 05030307
8. Each of the six groups was a separate community, which prescribed the rights of special meetings, representation in the Duma, or citywide council and even certain types of real property. Have a villa (suburban backyards and gardens) was allowed only to eminent citizens who could also drive around town in a carriage as a pair and quad. The first guild merchants were allowed to travel in a carriage, but only a couple; second guild-only in a wheelchair, but the pair; merchants of the third guild, as well as townspeople could ride only one horse [18; 423]. 05030308
9. Thus, the Russian city at the end of the XVIII century. was allowed right of self government, although all social forces, in contrast to Western European development vectors were aimed at fulfillment of state needs dictated from above and covering the whole person. Any initiative, including entrepreneurship, often unacknowledged alien to Russian soil. 05030309
1. Catherine II tried (at least outwardly) to follow the path of radical transformation of society in the spirit of Voltaire and Rousseau. With this great school of French philosophers related the doctrine of the Physiocrats headed by Dr. François Quesnay (1694-1774). Physiocrats believed that the most important activity for human society is agriculture, for the earth is the only source of wealth; trade and industry are a supplement to agriculture, and they are beneficial to the state, subject to processing or marketing of its own raw materials, rather than imported, because only then will they be useful for agriculture. 05040001
1. The productive class of farmers, according to the Physiocrats, through the promotion of the forces of nature, creates new values; but this requires that farmers were self-employed, tenants of large farms with their own capital, had a significant number of cattle, farmed the land with the help of horses bred and forage grasses. 05040101
2. Class of landowners, originally turned the land into arable land, built the farm premises, erecting roads and canals, receives from farmers in the form of rent net income, net profit coming in favor of the tenant. 05040102
3. The third class - industrial and commercial, according to the Physiocrats - unproductive class, because it does not add anything new to the value of the product and what it adds to it, is equal to the expended costs of food during the production, a reward which this class also has just right. 05040103
4. Physiocrats, the followers of the theory of natural law, in the economic sphere recognized the right to the enjoyment of all the benefits that man can get by his own efforts. Labor must know no interference or restriction, it should be free, and the worker must be sure that the results of his work will belong to him; in other words, said the Physiocrats, property is sacred. Every citizen should be allowed to retrieve from his work as much benefit as he wants. Exchange market should be free, unlimited competition; there should be no monopolies and privileges. Physiocrats were the first to demand economic freedom; any interference by the state is unnecessary, or harmful: to change the natural order can only God. Freedom is a basic human and divine law, and any intervention is tantamount to murder, poisoning wells, even treason. 05040104
5. The motive of economic activity Physiocrats believed self-interest and the desire to arrange own destiny most favorably without violating the rights of others. 05040105
1. Sympathy of Catherine II to physiocratism was expressed primarily in the establishment of the Free Economic Society, the purpose of which was that in our age agriculture and economic activity were put in the best condition. 05040201
2. It should be noted that the project of creating a central scientific institution, which would study agriculture in Russia and to develop proposals for improving agricultural production, entitled "Opinion on the establishment of the state board of Zemsky domostroystva" was the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov (1763). The draft contained proposals not only on the improvement of agriculture, but also about putting in order of forests, roads, canals, "village handicraft works." 05040202
3. In 1765, the year of Lomonosov's death, Catherine II approved the plan and the statute of the Free Economic Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and Housebuilding in Russia'. 05040203
4. The direction of the ideas of the Physiocrats affected the outlook of Catherine II. Her Mandate (Article 293) praises agriculture: 05040204
5. "There cannot be skillful needlework, nor firmly established trade, where agriculture were considered destructive or wasteful"; "Agriculture is the greatest work for the people"; "Agriculture is the first and main work, to which people should be encouraged." 05040205
6. Only economic individualism, i.e. private ownership, could give a strong foundation for agriculture; this dangerous, according to contemporaries, question Empress Mandate responds self-critically: 05040206
7. "Agriculture cannot thrive, "where people have nothing of their own" [60; 138]. As methods of rational management of agriculture in Russia Catherine II considered important an inducement law, rewarding the best farmers and government publication of books about agriculture, in which each farmer could find instructions in his bewilderment. 05040207
8. Moreover, from the pen of the Empress appeared pronounced recognition of private property by the state : "If the government wants to build any public building or carry out a new road, it is obliged to compensate the victims for it." Recognition of the right of private property was fixed by Catherine II as a privilege only for the nobility in her famous charters for this estate in 1785, which eliminates the effects of the "revolution" of Ivan the Terrible and decides: you can not take away from the nobleman his estate without a court case; gentleman has the right to freely dispose of his estates, except for legacy. 05040208
9. Of course, the reform plans of Catherine II in 60s of XVIII century were based on the principles of Western European liberalism: Empress externally recognized the benefits of free work of the serf labor. In the first volume of "Labor" of Free Economic Society (1765), among the economic issues relating to the differences in agriculture between the provinces, concerning sociological questions of the year 65 (about the earth and its fruits, their growth and growing) is also this: 05040209
10. "How many free days peasant landowner has for his own work and how many days he has to work for the master?". 05040210
11. The Empress, physiocrat on the Russian throne in the said Mandate refused from the main teachings of the antifeudal F. Quesnay, from freedom of labor: in some countries "farmers cannot be free, as this will cause them to escape and land remain uncultivated." 05040211
12. And she adds: "social or public liberty means not the right to do whatever anyone likes; Liberty is only right to do all the things that the law permits" [60; 138]. 05040212
13. The fruits of the Free Economic Society manifested in the fact that, since the last quarter of the XVIII century, landed estates that used the labor of serfs and "capitalists peasants", the so-called kulaks, dramatically increased grain production, and Russia becomes one of the largest exporters of grain in the European market. 05040213
14. Merchants south of Moscow, and Tula, Kaluga, Ryazan , Orel, Kursk, Tambov, Voronezh, Penza, Saratov, Orenburg and other provinces had as the most important articles of their trade volumes the intermediary trade of cattle, sheep and horses. Only to the fair in Kashira being send in the year up to 16 thousand head of cattle to be sent in the live weight on the markets of Moscow and St. Petersburg, and the same number slaughtered locally. The largest cattle fairs were in Zaraysk, Kolomna, Serpukhov, Mozhaisk, Epiphany, Ostrogozhsk Belogorie, Kalitva and elsewhere [52; 252-253]. 05040214
15. Landlord economy in steppe regions in the second half of the XVIII century increasingly turns to the organization of stud farms, state-owned and private, in which there was work not only with domestic species, but also with English, Arabic and Persian horses. 05040215
16. In many cities, especially industrialized, horticulture took pronounced character of commercial and market gardening. The most fertile gardens, greenhouses and hotbeds merchant were taking at their mercy. Buyers themselves guarded the garden fruits (apples, plums, cherries, nuts, grapes), removed the crop and transported to the markets. 05040216
17. Peasant community sought to rescue the poor out of poverty to subsistence, helping fire victims, observed the ancient custom to help with its principle of all for all, contributed to the tax paying, not only by the presence of man souls, but also in the tax paying ability. 05040217
1. The most common definition of a peasant means a person having a permanent home and stay in the village, and assigned to practice agriculture, and what belongs to it, regardless of what the authorities nor whose power he was exposed to [30, etc; 7]. 05050001
1. This definition has presented Russian lawyer A.Y. Polenov (1738-1816), author of the competitive essay "On the serfdom of peasants in Russia", approved by the Free Economic Society, but never published it. 05050101
2. Curiously, Polenov attributed the origin of the human slave state to war, referring to the Roman Law which excludes captive slaves from among the people and is consigning them to things, animate objects of labor. "The doctors, all sorts of artists, merchants, farmers were out of this state of the people, and the cruelty of their lots in Europe is not particularly changed, as it has been approved by the Christian faith. "Servile state prisoners, which the city had used for services, and outside thereof for agriculture use, following the example of other nations, and Russian ancestors: sold to neighbors as a piece of wood, separated parents and children, brothers and sisters, and more sorry for cattle, than humans [30 m. II; 12, 15]. Negligence led to the formation of people from century to century to the growth of ignorance, superstition, intemperance, laziness, carelessness, causing towards the peasantry not only contempt for the upper classes, but also hatred. 05050102
3. The study of A.J. Polenov meets the competition problem given in 1766 by the Free Economic Society: "which is useful for society - that the farmer had owned land or only movable property, and how far his right to one or the other should extend in the estate?". 05050103
4. Arguing about the peasantry, Polenov one of the first Russian thinkers of the XVIII century introduced the concept of the middle class, composed of craftsmen, artisans, small traders, etc. and thought it necessary to encourage the full development of the entrepreneurial state. 05050104
5. What did offer Polenov: 05050105
6. " We have in a lot of cities craft people in the sovereign service. Release all these people at will and inflict them on the first time some help, you can start giving them a multitude of elementary skills, and a decent example of other European peoples' liberties (AY Polenov studied, in addition to the gymnasium at St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1762-1766 years also at the University of Strasbourg -Y.P.) to excite diligence." 05050106
7. To bring the farmer out of the plight, Polenov also resorted to the idea of entrepreneurship, offering to determine the peasant crafts, having some similarities with agriculture. Then every Sunday businessman could bring to the sale "all kinds of bread, hemp, linen, canvas, cheese, butter, vegetables and many other things serving to human subsistence." 05050107
8. Referring to the European experience, Polenov noticed that "other nations, considering the quality of their land, in many respects, we have to concede, however, despite the fact that we see that they have performed all over superior: out of nothing, so to speak, they do wonders. "After the implementation of his proposals Polenov hoped, "we will soon see us equal: the city will be inhabited by people sufficient and useful to society, the beauty of their abundance of magnificent buildings; sovereign revenues grow much; science, arts and merchants come in a flourishing state, and every time in all fairness, though not without heavily charging the society itself, can consider itself as successful [30, т. II; 24, 25]. 05050108
9. Polenov justified his utopia that peasant households do not exist in isolation, but in the community communicate with each other, it is the basic unit of production and consumption, combining agriculture and other production methods: hunting, herding, gathering, fishing, trade, crafts and arts. Peasantry is not only society, but also culture. By relying on the farms, paying tribute to the city and providing food, there may be also specific political centers. 05050109
10. Author condemned serfdom, that is, forced unpaid labor, even though he knew that the outstanding monuments of ancient cultures, like the pyramids in Egypt and the Great Wall of China, and of St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia - all these are the results of widespread forced labor. 05050110
11. However, A.Y. Polenov, finishing his own competitive problems "On serfdom peasants in Russia", was forced to immediately stop his work at the Academy of Sciences, and his work was published only a hundred years later in the journal "Russian Archive (1865). 05050111
1. Writer N.I. Novikov in the journal "Painter" placed a characteristic passage from a letter from one landlord to his son: "I was impeached for bribery cases; Do not take large percent; so from what I can make a fortune: every treasure does not please God, and with men even if you take the skin, so little is the profit. I think I did not make a mistake and so, what wilt thou do: five days they go to my work, but what they will make in five days? I hit them mercilessly, but no profit; from year to year more and more impovers the peasants; Lord has become angry at us! .. "[ЗО,т.П; 193-194]. 05050201
2. Later, in 1780-1783, in "Discourse on complete ruinage of Russia every form of government, of the state of the empire, as well as of the sovereigns themselves" wrote D.I. Fonvizin (1744 or 1745-1792). The educator, playwright, essayist calls his time as too good for unworthy people whose heads are occupied only by thoughts about means of enrichment. Greedy self-interest circulates: who can is robbing; who can not is stealing; justice has turned into a market place and you can not but be afraid to lose guilt and hope, without the right to take someone else's. Objects of payoff was not only trade with wine, salt, or the imposition of taxes, but justice, distribution of awards, service locations and so on. 05050202
3. In the "Discourse" Russian writer unfolded picture of Russia at that time, "the state of the ambient space, having none at all known on the globe which cosidering its vastness is the scarcest of the world in men; State chipped over thirty large areas and composed, we can say only of two cities, in one of which people live for the most part out of necessity, in another large part on a whim; state, so brave, its army terrible, whose position is that of being lost in one battle can sometimes being completely exterminated; State which has power and glory for attention drawn to the whole world and that man, one of human species no different from cattle and may result, so to speak, in a few hours on the edge of the final destruction and death; State, giving the kings to foreign lands and whose own throne from can be to opening hours of taverns for a brutal crowd rowdy, security guards of royal personages; State movable everyday and often by contradictory to each other decrees, but do not have any solid legal provisions; a state where people make up people's property, where people of one state has the right to be with the plaintiff and the judge over the person of another state, where everyone, consequently, can be forever or tyrant, or victim; State not monarchy, because there are no fundamental laws; no aristocracy, for the supreme rule it has a soulless machine, driven by the arbitrariness of the sovereign; democracy also the same can not be, being a land where the people that creep into the darkness of the deepest ignorance, under the burden of a mute slavery" [30, t. II; 264-265]. 05050203
4. The picture is truly hopeless and bleak. 05050204
5. When the "Discourse" became known to Ekaterina II, Fonvizin was immediately dismissed from the service on his literary career was imposed a de facto ban; until the end of his life the writer's works were not published. 05050205
6. "It's bad I have to live, and still Mr. Fonvizin wants to teach me to reign!" - With undisguised bitterness expressed Empress herself among her courtiers. 05050206
7. As for the extortion of nobility, then Catherine II tried to rebel against the ulcers primarily in the manifesto, 20 days after her accession: "Looking for a place that anyone pays; protected anyone from slander, defends money; slanders whether someone who, all their cunning intrigues reinforces gifts. "And here is the result: "Justice is converted in the market place; to Gods revenge is used slander in righteous denunciation, to the ruin of the State the Revenue profit of state." 05050207
1. To produce a new Code (the Code of Laws) Catherine II creates a commission of 645 deputies from all the provinces of Russia, from all tribes and classes, not excluding the peasants releasing to it 200,000 rubles. In his liberal "Instructions" that circulates in the whole of Europe as a brilliant testimony of the high quality of the mind and heart of the Russian Empress Catherine II condemned the unlimited power of the landlords, property lawlessness farmers disastrous system of dues. In the "Instructions" she advises, "to enforce the law to landlords that they possessed with great consideration of their exactions and extortions they would take that guy less weaned from his home and family: spread more agriculture, and the number of people in the country would be multiplied". "Everywhere, says it in the Instructions to Legislative Commission, where there is a place in which to live profitable, people here should be guided. But a country that is so burdened with taxes, that only by hard work and toil people with great needs may find their own food, should eventually be abandoned" [30, t. II; 249-250]. 05060101
1. Anxiety of Empress supported the Commission's Deputy Gregory Kozlovsky representative of nobility Korobin, referring to the long-term experience and the advise of his argument with some sensible people. The deputy Korobina thinking that if the toil compels the peasants to leave their land, there are abundantly such landowners who take these peasants against ordinary taxes. "Farmer is the essence of the soul of society, therefore, when the toil remains the soul of society, the very society is weakening." Afraid to seem rich shows the fear as if that wealth would not be earned and collected by them. Also perhaps buried in the ground their money, afraid to let it go into circulation. M.P. Korobina suggested "that it should be prescribed by law, the annual amount to pay to landlord by the farmer", i.e. what to take from peasant as levies, and quoted the Mandate of the Empress, who presented it this way: "that landowners took requisitions less than that what makes the man weaning and separating from his home and family" [30; 51.54]. 05060201
2. No one in the Commission supported to compose a new Code in the way Korobin suggested, only opponents appeared. Catherine II after a number of his speeches found it impossible him to stay further coronary deputy of the Commission, and in the autumn 1768 Korobina handed his powers to "Artillery Regiment Lieutenant Basil Rodionov." 05060202
1. But cornet Yemelyan Pugachev (1740 or 1742 - 1775) in his decrees ("On mercy of God, Peter III, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias") released "all the earlier of mischief in stature received honors on the peasants and all the nation have taken bribes to the judges and the tax burden and the number of the people". In its efforts to be loyal to the crown of the slaves he rewarded all of which were previously on the peasantry and the landowners were subject to, the old cross and a prayer, and the parroquin, freedom, without requiring the military recruitment and other cash payments, capitation and other money taxes, and passed without buying without quitrent land ownership, forest, grassland, and fishing, and salt lakes [30, TN; 103-104]. Opponents of Pugachev were deprived of admonitions and mercy of harsh Tsarist promise: the head of the ruble and pasture will be robbed. 05060301
1. The only book with Physiocratic content, written in Russian, referred in the West was the work of Prince D.A. Golitsyn (1734- 1803) "The Spirit of economists." The author - an honorary member of many European academies, diplomat, ambassador in Paris to withdraw from his post in 1768. "Serfdom is never profitable for the state - wrote Golitsyn. - Natural consequences of it are feudal thanklesness, laziness, carelessness and even deceit." as conditions of high productivity in the national economy the author considers the personal freedom of the producer and giving him the right of ownership: "Free disposal of excess or in other words, wealth is the efficient cause of fertility of fields, mining, the emergence of inventions, discoveries and all the things that can make the nation blossom." Development of industry and science in Russia, according to D.A. Golitsyn is also prevented by the absence of the middle class; As for the serfs, the "prolonged slavery in which are our peasants has formed their true nature, and currently very few of them consciously aspire to the kind of labor or industry, which can enrich them" [60; 138-139]. 05060401
2. Eminent scholar and politician of the XVIII century. was preoccupied with thoughts about the issues of ownership and the liberation of peasants from serfdom. Sincere supporter of the ideas of Voltaire and Diderot, D.A. Golitsyn stated his thoughts and plans in letters to the Vice-Chancellor A.M. Golitsyn, eminent nobleman, close to the Empress Catherine II, the man on the especial characteristics of MM Shcherbatova, executing with integrity his juridical office, which means that the letters were sent by the physiocrat D.A. Golitsyn with a special calculation that they will be read by the Empress. 05060402
3. And what Catherine II in them could read? Thoughts on the ownership of land D.A. Golitsyn boiled down to the fact that "property should be considered a means to inspire love of country, and that the soldier who fought also for himself, with redoubled zeal will defend the borders of the state, with whom he feels organic relationship." Prince undoubtedly believed that "all truly useful roots stronger when it is taken by the people than if it is administered by the orders." People under the L.A. Golitsyn meant landlords and landowners, and he explained that for the voluntary adoption, through which you can count on the strength of established custom, we need an example. He exclaimed: "Who can give the best, if not Her Majesty herself? The land is at her disposal on a par with the rest of the state. If she gives peasants the ownership of their lands, not to mention lands belonging us, the Lords, then such experience of her charity can not produce, in my opinion, anything else than wonderful action. " 05060403
4. The prince himself D.A. Golitsyn had requested permission of Her Imperial Majesty for the release of his own serfs (letter from The Hague, 30 September 1770). For this he set three conditions:
5. D.A. Golitsyn took part especially farmers in business, because without the abolition of serfdom in Russia it is impossible to have a flourishing trade. "Everywhere in foreign lands, - said he, - yard artisans are prohibited; where there are shops and therefore bloom: arts and craft, helping the prosperity of Sciences and Arts of the free." Reiterates its view referencing to Hume: if the emperor did not bring up at the manufacturer that can weave cloth so thin, that it has reached the price of two guineas yards, much less brought up in his State astronomer. Hoped that with the development of agriculture, domestic trade and multiplying population throughout Russia made a great road and set the mail, like in France. 05060408
6. Catherine II by reference to France, its roads and mail Address, leaving litter: "The whole of France is almost half of the province of Novgorod." 05060409
7. Oh, these Russian expanses irresistible! 05060410
8. By the way, the scale of the Russian territory, state the ways and means of transporting goods, low population density and sparse network of cities adversely affect the rate of turnover of commercial capital. 05060411
9. Prince D.A. Golitsyn, granting freedom to the peasants, once thought to improve their situation, and all the efforts and personal care he dreamed would lead to the fact that all his land has been treated. Free trade works of this land should be based on its profitability. "All the stuff up does not concern me; surplus peasant population does not enrich me; essential in my household will be to ensure that every farmer had a piece of land, sufficient not only for his food, but also to enrich him, for, the better off he will be, the higher price for it will shoot my land." 05060412
10. Prince diplomat worried lack of freedom of trade, even in the Russian nobility. The difficulty of communication between the interior regions of Russia and abroad led him to the need to restore almost banned crafts - smoking wine, beer brewing. 05060413
11. At the end of correspondence - the proud conviction: "I consider myself the happiest of men if I get the opportunity to apply the first example of the liberation of the peasants. Dmitry, Prince Golitsyn. " 05060414
12. Catherine II in a note for your own example, to which it called Prince D.A. Golitsyn, recorded: 05060415
13. "Yet it is doubtful that an example aroused repent of our compatriots and swept them for themselves; it is even unlikely. Moreover, such an order could affect the safety of the landowners and others. "[30, t. II; 33, 44-45]. 05060416
1. Highly relevant note, given that the debate in the meetings of the Commission Catherine serious practical results failed. Solemn promises "Mandate" to legislate, improving the situation of the working population, were not met. On the contrary, subsequent legislation by Catherine II dramatically worsened the situation of the peasant masses, strengthened and consolidated the tyranny of landlords form of feudal slavery. Even following the law in 1803 on free farmers over the next half-century owner of 384 set free on all 115734 souls of forty Russia. 05060501
1. In the Imperial Public Library from 1859 is a portrait of P.D. Larin (1735-1778), it is named after one of the rooms of the Larinsky library. In the portrait, according to contemporary European fashion, Larin is presented in a rich French gentleman's coat, in powder, stockings and shoes, with an open and intelligent face of Ryazan. And the suit was different from that of the tax-paying Russian merchant society, although in one of the messages he reported to the Empress, not without pride: "I am a merchant in Moscow, and before I had the good fortune to be among the farmers in the light of a noble landowner, Catherine the Great, and both then and now Her loyal subject and everlasting truth seeker, ordered by Her mouth and by example also taught. " 05070001
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| 41. P.D. Larin |
2. But the questions of the public library, Who is Larin, what is known about him, which were the details of the life of this generous, honest and educated merchant of Catherine's time (characteristics by V.V. Stasov). Answers during the last two centuries is not easy to find: so few survived news about Larin, which has become to some extent a forerunner of Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) and his premiums. 05070003
3. About his childhood in the village of Ryazan court administration Lyubuchi Larin told himself in a note in 1777 to the Empress Catherine II: 05070004
4. "The people of this village are not engaged in farming, on the inconvenience of land to grain, but almost all participate in small and larger trading or serve as workers and clerks. They are learning from childhood: nobody except priest and his followers who themselves know little, but because being favorites, in their ignorance and analphabetism, work hard and get but little. "There is a legend that Peter Larin, as a young boy about eight years old, pass a herd, and in the winter goes to learn to read and write to the rural sexton. 05070005
5. He later described in more detail the palatial village Lyubuchi in Pereslavl: Ryazan is at the mouth of the river Cna, a tributary of the Oka River, 130 miles from Moscow: in this village are living 557 souls; land they have enough, but to grain growing it is with no labour effort available. At the branching of Cna and Oka, there is every year a flooding, which covers not only all the fields, but in many places also most of the village. Therefore the villagers since ancient times do not sow grain, but only harvest some hay. But as this part of the agricultural heritage does not give them enough to pay state taxes and dues to landlord, and does not even deliver food for them, they are used since ancient times to be engaged to different occupations and trade in grain, fish, honey, wax, fat, fowl and skins; also they serve at the merchant as workers and clerks, carrying goods and salt on water way; In short, from crafts they are becoming their living. 05070006
6. Enumerating to the Empress crafts and occupations of Lyubuchany of that time, merchant Larin did not mention the most common occupation of villagers: serving as barmen and carriers of the taverns in their own village and in other places. Lyubuch peasants gained in these positions a reputation of being dexterous and agile masters, according to the legend known throughout Russia. 05070007
7. Porters in the tavern began to earn his bread and 14-year-old boy clever and agile Peter Larin. It, however, soon noticed Managing Drinking taxes and took to his office cashier. A few years later, having passed one after the other steps in the drinking part, Larin was promoted to managing drinking gathering in Kazan. In 1771 Larin already Moscow merchant, takes on the mercy of the city of Arkhangelsk and became crown attorney at the Kazan and Arkhangelsk province. According to his son in law, Larin delivered treasury benefits more than two million rubles at the auction Taxed in 1770 and 1774 respectively [79; 408]. 05070008
8. Peter Danilovich Larin strongly differed from the majority of operators, his colleagues, and of all other merchants. And it's not that he traded in Arkhangelsk fish, hemp and bread; one time he led the grain trade with England, sent there own ships, visited London and learned to speak in English. Lyubuch oral tradition says that Larin was a supplier of bread at the Imperial Court. 05070009
9. The bottom line is born a peasant, Peter Larin, barely reaching the age of 40, was already a merchant 1st guild and possessed considerable wealth. In 1776 he built a Lyubuchah of his dependents and their own labor large two-story church about five domes, with three aisles and a bell tower. One of the finest churches in the whole province of Ryazan cost PD Larin 65 thousand. Rubles. In the aforementioned letter to Catherine II Larin had the right to publicly say: 05070010
10. "Providence of the Supreme Creator blessed my labors as a hard-working citizen, property surpassed my expectation. I devote most of my possessions to the establishment of the elementary school for poor and helpless orphans, and can by conscience and honor to my all-merciful monarch assure that this selfless sacrifice did not dissolve weeping and crying of people oppressed by me, but because of your diligent and watchfully vigilant dependents, who acquiring, and not causing resentment to the smallest neighbor, no damage to the treasury, but only by the confluence of circumstances, helped by my businesses, this all occurred." 05070011
11. With very strong reasons the enterprising Larin addressed his words to the "birth of His Imperial Highness the righteous and sovereign Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, for the growth of the home of your Imperial Majesty, dear and precious to all Russians." 05070012
12. Place for the elementary school Peter Danilovych chose the same which was determined by the fate of his birth, namely the palace Lyubuchi village, consisting in the county Pereyaslavl in Ryazan, at the mouth of the river Cna, a tributary of the Oka River. 05070013
13. Message from the Empress ended with the words: 05070014
14. "Vouchsafe, Most Lucent Majesty, your gracious acceptance of these things of this slavish company, and if signified and awarded the highest approval of your Imperial Majesty, so considers these things as the greatest happiness and mercy Your Imperial Majesty's most loyal servant Moscow merchant Pyotr Larin." 05070015
15. By the petition were applied projects lyubuchskogo school and bank. 05070016
16. It should be mentioned that in the "Governorship" of 1775 Catherine II ordered the organs of public charity to try to organize public schools in every city, and then in the villages, for all those people who voluntarily wish to study in these, so that the poor could learn without payment, and wealthier for a modest fee. 05070017
17. But it was only on paper. Those who stood in higher positions by their own assets, took care to give children the French polish of education, even though externally. 05070018
18. And now, two years after the publication of statutes declared there is some merchant, a native of the peasants, who had spent half his life in the service of the tavern, but is the first of all Russian-minded European, writing and submitting the Empress a plan, ready in all parts, minted in details of the project, wishing to put immediately in one of the corners of the Russian country the origin of the network of public schools. 05070019
19. To the program of public schools of the wide Russian Empire Larin included, apart from the law of Catherine, knowledge of Russian trade of different industries, and from where and how to make it more conveniently, as well as knowledge of how merchants do accounting and book-keeping, in addition, French and German for those who wish. 05070020
20. Catherine II immediately gave her assent to all the requests made by Larin. In nominal decree, addressed to the chief steward P.P. Elagina (1725- 1794) of 12 March 1778 it was stated: "praiseworthy intention of Moscow merchant Peter Larin to make their dependents elementary school in district of Pereslavl-Ryazan in court village Lyubuchi, the place of his birth, being a citizen of it, to common benefit." The Empress, not only allowing the mark acceptance to this school, but also commanded: "Earth, they ask for, be given for the construction of schools, the local peasants without loss and deprivation of their right benefits shall be relocated "[79; 416]. 05070021
21. In April 1778 the Office of the main palace in the village accepted Larin's Lyubuch requests, gave a place for the school, just 80 yards up the Tsne, and in the field 400 yards from the river. 05070022
22. Move to Lyubuchi Peter Daniloovich could not: he died in August 1778 suddenly, unable to make even a spiritual testament. He was buried in the church, which was built near Lyubuch, with the words over the tomb, "To the Creator of this temple, the founder of the school and the bank in Larin, philanthropist and wretched sire, a friend of humanity erected to the memory his diligent admirers. Gracious and faithful servant, rest in joy of thy Lord. " 05070023
23. But the construction of the school, conceived by merchant of the 1st guild P.D. Larin, was carried out, due to various circumstances, only forty years after his death. 05070024
24. Well, these circumstances? - Typical for Russia. Main thing was the loss of the money itself, assigned to the school in the form of tickets for 50,000 rubles issued to Larin by the Moscow Treasury. For a long time the theft remained unresolved until the cause was undertaken by the son-in-law of Larin, collegiate assessor Tsygorov. A quarter-century later, in December 1803, the perpetrators are brought to justice, and on the highest command ordered the stolen money with interest to be recovered from the surviving perpetrators. Only in June 1817 His Majesty approved the provision on the basis of Lyubuch school and bank on it, and at the same time ordered release to Larin the amount that by that time (in forty years) had increased to more than 700 thousand rubles. The house was worth 45,793 rubles. Hugely overgrown Larin amount served the purposes of public education in Russia. With these funds in the 1828-1835 biennium. were built halls of the Imperial Public Library, coming from the corner of Nevsky Prospect on the area of the monument of Catherine II, one of which Nicholas I in 1835 commanded to call Larin. Soon, the capital of which consists in the Department of Public Instruction who larins- capital.,, Exceeded 800 thousand rubles, opened the first high school for children of middle class residents of Vasilievsky Island. Petersburg and Vyborg sides, then built a gymnasium, Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa. 05070025
25. In the portrait of the Russian National Library, donated by the granddaughter of Peter Davydovych, Larin is presented in a powdered wig, a crimson velvet coat and silk stockings; in the hands a paper with text printed on it. He sits on the balcony of the house, conceived in Lyubuch to his dwelling. The face of the entrepreneur expresses intelligence, kindness, insight and sorrow. 05070026
1. It is generally recognized that the XVI century has passed under the flags of Spain and Portugal, in the XVII century flashed and quickly filled the sails on sea Dutch and the French, and the XVIII century was the century of Britain and Russia. Under the sign of free competition in the XVIII century the struggle for a new organization of economic life took place in the conditions of the industrial revolution. 05080001
2. Here some examples
1729 - started working Kolyvano-Voskresenskij smelter in Altai. Entrepreneur Nicephorus Kleopin built here smelting furnace and a dam for the action of water wheels serving the factory machinery.
1733 - J. Kay invents aircraft shuttle.
1754 - J. Wilkinson, one of a new generation of entrepreneur type builds the first blast furnace coke for industrial use.
1760 - Russian businessman Rodion Glinka invented the spinning-carding machine with water drive, increases productivity by 5 times.
1763 - first textbook of metallurgy was published - the classic work M.V. Lomonosov "The Fundamentals of Metallurgy and Mining."
1763 - Peace of Paris ends the Seven Years War (1756-1763) between the powers of Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden and the powers of Prussia, Great Britain, Portugal, in the theater of Europe, North America, the West Indies, East Indies, South Eastern Asia and Africa. To England belongs the whole of America north of Mexico.
1763 - Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov (1728-1766) 20 years before John Watt drafts a universal steam engine.
1765 I.I. Polzunov build the first steam power plant in Russia after working in the factory for 43 days; week thereafter Polzunov dies.
1765 - II Crawlers build Russia's first plant using steampower, having worked for 43 days; a week before its start Crawlers died.
1767 - Manchester- Liverpool Ship Canal is opened.
1769 - J. Wedgwood, founder of British art pottery, a chemist, a designer, a public figure, usimg as models mostly works of ancient art (Goethe, - on the testimony of British art - made for German literature that the English Wedgwood for Art), opens its first ceramic factory.
1770 - opened a ceramic factory in Borovichi, as a consequence of the opening of Refractories Plant.
1771 - In England appears the first mechanical spinning mill by the entrepreneur R. Arkwright (1732-1792), on which the invention English mechanic T. Hayes's watermachine (spinning machine powered by a water wheel).
1775 - James Watt received the first order for industrial steam engine. 05080002
3. Max Weber in "History of the economy," pondered about the posibility of the appearance of a universal energy source (unlimited power, independence from natural factors), one of the moments of the industrial revolution, along with coal (independence from wood) and steel (independence from natural materials). The result was the emergence of entrepreneurial efforts of the spinning machine, the steam engine and high-performance looms, which immediately affected the results of industrial production. 05080015
4. During the XVIII century the annual production of cast iron in Russia has increased 66-fold - from 150 thousand Pounds in 1700 to 9 million 971 thousand Pounds in 1800. By the beginning of the XIX century Russia ranked first in the world for smelting metal. High quality and low cost of Russian metal produced at 149 plants, causing high demand in other countries. 05080016
5. In the 40-ies. in the Urals, Altai, Pomerania was discovered gold, and soon it became an independent production industry. During the second half of the XVIII century on mere Berezovsky fields in the Urals processed more than 25 million tons of ore and produced more than 360 tons of gold. With the Altai mines and factories were Nerchinsk hundreds pounds of gold and silver. 05080017
6. XVIII century Russia gave the first university to Gornozavodsk case -Gorny Cadet Corps in St. Petersburg, which was opened June 28, 1774 05080018
7. In the last quarter of the XVIII century Ural entrepreneurs to Goroblagodatsky factories began to melt iron with carbon. Manufactory centers born in England and Russia were connected to the sea by a channel. 05080019
8. In Russia, as in other industrially developed countries started working laws of the market. When in 1797 Paul I (1754-1801) ordered all clothiers donate products to the treasury at fixed prices, the state began to experience a lack of cloth for uniforms of the army. Only after his son Alexander I in 1816 allowed manufacturers of cloth freely dispose of their products, has increased its output immediately [65; 32]. 05080020
9. During 34-year reign of Catherine the number of enterprises in Russia increased by more than three times, indicating that the much increased scale and all quantitative indicators of entrepreneurial activity, despite the instability of merchant families and the constant change in the composition of the merchant class as a whole. For the evolution of Russian merchants in the XVIII century characterized by a tendency to place trading capital into the industry. 05080021
10. Especially actively developing private enterprise in the Urals. Of the 176 plants built there by the end of the XVIII century Only 32 were funded by the Treasury [65; 29], and the rest, and that more than 80% - were privately owned, based on wage labor, and oriented to the world market. 05080022
11. Emerging from the early 60-ies of the fundamental changes of government policy led to the lifting of restrictions on the development of urban and rural small-scale production, the growth of commercial capital, targeting industrialists to use hired labor, caused social and economic changes in land village. By the Manifesto on April 5, 1797 Paul I limited serfdom to three days a week to prepare the nation for a less slave-share state. 05080023
12. Merchant class got enabled to elect their representatives to high public offices. Old Believers when Paul was allowed to have their own churches and priests. Despite the relentless competition, higher level merchants end of XVIII century formed mainly by commoners and peasants who were beaten out in people due to their abilities, dedication and entrepreneurial spirit to the activity, without complacency achieved. All this seriously affects the development of capitalist relations in Russia and the establishment of the capitalist type of perfect businessman, in which Orthodoxy consolidated the priority of the spiritual and moral principle over the material, the need to observe the benefit of the Fatherland. According to A.N. Radishcheva true man and the son of the Fatherland is the same. Unconditional condemnation of the mammon of unrighteousness, based on breach of general moral principles in relations between people. 05080024
1. Prerequisites of the industrial revolution in Russia have developed a little later than in England. 06010101
2. But domestic manufactories were not backward at the beginning of the industrial revolution in the West. The first steam engines, created by PP Polzunov as steam-power installation (1765), were built in Petrozavodsk (1790) and the Urals (1799). On reconstruction of Ural factories was earmarked annually from 50 to 200 thousand Rub. Moreover, as the export of cotton-spinning machines from England was prohibited under the threat of the death penalty back in 1786 and strictly adhered to the lifting of the ban in 1842 instead of engines, artists had to be invited and they were far from the best. 06010102
3. In 1786 a number of artists, led by the renowned engineer Charles Gascoygne arrived in St. Petersburg, among them the mechanic Charles Byrd (1766-1843), made in 1792 steam engine, became the founder of mechanical workshops and foundries in St. Petersburg and the first shipping company on the Neva (1815). Plants of C. Byrd built about 200 steam engines for the first 30 years of the XIX century, including 11 steamship steam engines. Among the people of Petrograd during a whole century was common characteristic of precision and quality achieved by the native of Scotland: as Byrd at the factory. Byrd taught pupils manufacture of steam engine to machinists, mechanics, blacksmiths - and write about what they had learned. In addition to salaries and allowances from the Treasury, the founder of the dynasty of Russian business, paid students a benefit from 5 to 15 rubles per month of his own means for a five-year period of study. Entrepreneur was in 1811 elevated to the nobility. Plant of Byrd was one of the largest in Russia, already in 1824 it employed nearly a thousand people. His son, Francis Byrd, continued father's work, and in 1853 released their peasants. 06010103
4. But steam engines in Russia were built not only in factories of Byrd. They were gathered in Petrozavodsk on a government domain Alexander gun factories, and two state-owned factories in St. Peterburg Ironworks and Alexander manufactory. Steam boilers and machinery along with armor and other things were built on Kolpinskaya, Izhor plants of Marine Office. They were manufactured in the ironworks of Mining Department, converted in 1844 into the Main Mechanical Plant Nikolaev and producing a hundred or more locomotives per year [81; 435]. 06010104
5. Produced steam engines also private factories mining department. 06010105
6. E.A. Cherepanov (1774-1842), owning Demidov plants with slave workers, having been in Sweden and England, built in the 1820s. the copper mines in Nizhny Tagil two steam engines of 30 and 40 hp, followed by another 40 hp in factories Rastorgueva. In the 1833-34 biennium, along with his son Myron E. Cherepanov built the first steam locomotive and built the first factory railway. 06010106
7. In general, for 1860, there were about 100 Russian machine-building enterprises, and only in the 50-ies. Manufacture of machinery increased 16-fold [97; 158]. 06010107
1. By the beginning of the XIX century it became apparent that the long winter, low fertility of some provinces and bad husbandry in Russia causes poverty, idleness, boredom, and great work is associated with a small profit. A.N. Radischev, returned from exile in Siberia, decides to become an innovator of the winter activity of the people, "Give him a job, and with the work also pay! Then he will have food, then warm up his house, and his young ones do not die from nudity or hunger." [59; 154]. 06010201
2. Little by little a transformation took place in the villages in the industrial settlements. The population of Russian cities, especially in the first quarter of XIX century grew slowly. If in 1794 the ratio of urban population to the entire population of Russia was 1:17, then in 1840, this ratio is nearer to 1:11, while in France it was 1:4.8, and in England 1:2. 06010202
3. Taking care of the maintenance of the external prestige of Russia and the expansion of its territory, the government of Alexander I paid little attention to the shattered previous fiscal policy in the country, financial situation and the economic situation of the population. Meanwhile, the financial problems were the subject of special care in European countries. Thus, in industrialized England, the office of the finance minister was connected with the office of the prime minister. 06010203
4. The main sources of budget revenues were direct and indirect taxes. Major taxpayers in Russia were landlords and government peasants: first paid a poll tax, the second the rent. At the end of the XVIII century poll tax was 1 rbl., and the rent - 3 rubles. 06010204
5. The next most important source of income of the budget was an indirect tax on beverages, that is, the sale of alcohol. 06010205
6. Despite the large revenues to the treasury of direct and indirect taxes throughout the period of the reign of the Romanov dynasty, the state is in dire need of funds, mainly for warfare. However, until the reign of Catherine II the government had no debts, neither internal nor external. The exception was the period of copper coins of Alexei Mikhailovich, when the Treasury owed its citizens and paid the debt in a very peculiar way, and during Peter's rein easily in silver coins. Also Peter I papaid his debts to citizens, leaving them the legacy of manufactures in different industries and trade surplus. 06010206
7. Changing the royal power in the face of Paul I began with an attempt to repay external and internal debt accumulated by Catherine II, and was accompanied by coining new money; new ruble rated to its full value as the most valuable coins in Western Europe. Instead of the king's portrait on the stamp of the new ruble there was an eagle, and a portrait side was replaced by the inscription: "Not to us, not to us, in thy name." 06010208
8. After the formation of, among others, the Ministry of Finance, since 1803 has been established the annual budgets (revenues and expenditures). Immediately was revealed a significant budget deficit, the cause of which was primarily government debt, which reached to the reign of Catherine II 215 million rub. and gave rise to the phenomenon of inflation and forcing the government to resort to external borrowing. In 1809, expenses exceeded revenues 2 times [97; 211]. 06010209
9. The first non-deficit financing plan or the state budget for 1810, was compiled by MM Speransky with the participation of professors Balug'iansky and Jacob, and scrutinized in a small circle of persons with the confidence of Speransky (Kochubei, Mordvinov, Finance Minister Guriev). The budget deficit of 65 mln. rubles was covered, maintaining a large army, by introduction of new taxes and increasing old. In 1810 was increased the percentage of the collection of merchant capital, introduced taxes on trading farmers, from foreign craftsmen; spread the poll tax on the Chercassians and the villagers of the Jews; introduced half percentage-point collection on houses in the capital, raised the price of salt, as percentage on stamp, bill, debt letters, passport, drinking. 06010210
10. War of 1812 further undermined the financial position of the empire. Support for industry was conducted by raising customs tariffs. In 1823, Count D.A. Guriev (1751-1825) left his post as Minister of Finance. 06010211
1. Despite many negative factors of Russian life, at the end of XVIII - early XIX century, directly and indirectly related to the preservation of serfdom (in 1792, 200 years after the Decree of Godunov, Catherine II equated to serfs the real property of the landowners) during this period there is a further deepening of the division of labor between sectors and territories, specialization of individual provinces and regions, growing exchange between them, developing of means of communication. 06010301
2. By the beginning of the XIX century in Russia, there were 2,423 factories, which employed about 1 million workers. On the patrimonial enterprises were employed 210,568 people, including 66725 serfs. Privately possessed manufactory in steel, cloth and linen industry used the land and lived by contingent labor law. If in 1804 hired labor takes less than half (48%), then in 1825 salaried workers account for more than half (54%). 06010302
3. New-born enterprises needed in the legislative design of their status, as reflected in legislative acts 1805- 1807 year, denoting the order of registration, rights and responsibilities of owners. 06010303
4. At the beginning of the XIX century were identified organizational and legal forms of enterprises, such as:
The one-person company (often a single company);
The trading house (full company and a limited partnership)
limited liability company
06010304
5. At the beginning of the reign of Alexander I (1777-1825), the Russian emperor since 1801, has established and maintained magazines, acquainting entrepreneurs with government regulations and information on the state of industry and commerce in Russia and abroad ("Journal of Manufactures and Commerce", "Mining Journal"). 06010308
6. At the end of 1809 in St. Petersburg, was established the Institute of Railway Engineers for training specialists with higher professional education for the construction and maintenance of highways, bridges, artificial water channels, ports, railways and civil structures. 06010309
7. In 1817, Russia launched the first device to highways. In the period 1836-1855 was entered the service of transit highways of imperial Russia with a total length of about 600 thousand miles: Moscow-Warsaw highway, Kiev, Podolsk, Kharkov, Peterburg-Moscow, Kyiv-Brest, Dvina, the Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl et al., as well as a number of large artificial water channels, making it possible to establish a nearly perfect at the time mail message delivery. 06010310
8. In the Institute of Technology, founded in 1825, designed for the class of manufacturers, was taught the science of commerce with respect to factories, knowledge of products, technology in general, on production for certain kinds of plants [65; 43]. 06010311
9. To encourage entrepreneurs, in 1802, at the expense of the Treasury, was formed the so-called manufacturing capital fond for granting preferential loans to manufacturers. Low interest treasury subsidized mine owners (since 1806), preferential subsidies to encourage owners of woollen factories (from 1809), and since 1810 the use of the treasury decrees in the country to use exclusively domestic paper and sealing wax. 06010312
10. By the end of the reign of Alexander I, the number of enterprises was 5261 with an output of 46.5 mln. rubles (compared to 25 mln. rubles quarter of a century earlier). Many industrial enterprises (tannery, carpentry, lace, and many others, based on the age-old folk crafts) grew out of small handicraft industries and almost entirely passed on hired labor. 06010313
1. Social division of labor, industry and trade led to the growth of the urban population, the main occupation was commercial activity. Their number rise to 425.7 thousand people in 1792, reached in 1825 to 1 mln. 200 thousand people. The total number of workers in a quarter century had increased by 1.5 times, and civilians by 2 times. In some industries (eg, cotton) clearly evolved capitalist organization of production long before the emancipation of the serfs. In 1814 farmer-entrepreneurs were given the right to receive a bill in their name, but without right to issue them on own behalf. The sum of merchant's capital, mostly peasants, to 1825 increased by 60%. Founder and owner of several textile mills S.V. Morozov (1770-1862), a native of the serfs, redeemed with his sons into liberty in 1820, however in all cities of Russia in 1823, there were about 10 thousand merchants, whose numbers grew rapidly: by 1850, the number of merchants increased 5 times, although their total number (180 thousand pers.) was one and a half times less than of the clergy [65; 44]. 06010401
2. Industrial development of the Russian economy has put in front of her statesmen the problem of combining economic freedom, without which further progress in the development of the productive forces of the country was not possible with the continuing system of attachment of peasants with the land to the landowner. "By the very nature of the charter no bargaining, no craft or art can not flourish without their freedom of action," - says economist of Russian Count NS Mordvins (1754-1845). In his opinion, the most important prerequisite for the development of business relations in Russia should be improvement of money circulation, especially banking accumulation of the available free capital in the country, and further economic growth is inconceivable without the approval of the country's entrepreneurial freedom for all classes, including peasants. 06010402
 |
| 42. N.S. Mordvinov |
3. But private interest involves explicit laws that protect private property, its freedom from abuse, and justice. More than half of the serfs worked on serfdom. Tax burden (tax) on the part of the landowner and the state reduced the need for farmers to extremely low levels, causes a reduction in the birth rate and increased mortality. The total amount of taxes and dues from 39 mln. rubles in 1800, increased to 1826 to 120 mln. rubles increased by 3-4 times rents from state peasants caused enormous size of arrears. "Negro slavery is a crime - spoke creator of the" Union of Welfare" N.I. Turgenev (1789-1871). - Slavery of Russian peasants is more than a crime: it is a sin" [60; 157]. Peasants (most people) have always been indifferent to the violent change of kings, for the manner of control and command remained unchanged: always have silently had to obey the willfulness. N.I. Turgenev invented the hard aphorism: Russia is an absolute monarchy, temperedly strangled. Cost manor lands in Russia was estimated by the number of serfs, ranked accordingly (and because of that there was the plot of Gogol's "Dead Souls") While the law assessed the price of a soul to 400 rubles; the right to levy the poll tax was 4 rubles on each soul. 06010404
 |
| 43. A.T. Boltov |
4. Bonded labor prevented widespread technological innovations that have appeared abroad, although all the achievements of agricultural equipment in Western Europe were tested in Russia. Held agricultural exhibitions, some landlords were administered scientific rotations bred purebred cattle, arranged on their estates workshops for the manufacture of machines. To name AT Bolotov (1738-1833), publisher of magazines "villager" and "Economic shop", an active member of the Free Economic Society, one of the founders of the national agricultural science, left the guidelines for the introduction of crop rotation, removal of varieties of fruit crops and afforestation of forest management. Commercialization of agriculture in the first quarter of XIX century does not exceed 15%. Increased exploitation of the peasants did not give the desired effect to landlords. According to the calculations of statisticians of the time, hired labor in agriculture was six times more productive than the serf-based. 06010406
5. Bonded labor inhibited the introduction of machine technology and industrial production. If in the second half of XVIII. Russia was the first place in the world in the production of iron, at the turn of the XIX century it caught up with England, and to nachalu7 60s. Russia produced iron is 10 times less than England. 06010407
6. Development of domestic trade was restrained by state transport, in which the main types were river and cart. At low speed of movement was slow also the circulation of capital, goods became more expensive on the road. 06010408
7. The lack of free movement of peasants inhibited the growth of urban population, the development of urban crafts and industry. Peasants at low wages had not been able to influence the formation of market relations. 06010409
8. At the very beginning of his reign in 1801 Alexander I made a free trade land without serfs, causing the land becomes a commodity, land ruined landowners started buying public wealthy farmers and merchants. For sale was what: of 420 million acres of land in the European part of Russia were processed nothing more than 63 million desyatines - one-seventh part. 06010410
9. The second step was published in 1803 on the initiative of Count S.P. Rumyantsev (1755-1838) Decree on the free cultivators, under which landlords were allowed to let their peasnt be liberated and buy the land for ransom. Writer, philanthropist and liberal, having touched the western culture as a diplomat, Count Rumyantsev in his petition to the Emperor asked his permission to let go of his peasants to freedom under special conditions, which he proposed to take the form of general legalization. In a letter to the young emperor Rumyantsev pointed out: "After Peter the Great forcibly destroyed ignorance, insensitively and without any fear can begin chipping away also the slavery, which otherwise nothing else is than positive and terrible disaster." The essence of his proposals was as follows: "the resolution of difficulties is based on voluntary agreements and mutual equal to the nobility, as well as the benefits for farmers." Rumyantsev proposed the creation of a special class of laid-off peasants, endowed with the ownership of the land and enjoyment of the benefits of the decree of 12 December 1801 granting to the people of the Free State to acquire land uninhabited. And although this right was implemented to a limited number of landlords, the law created a precedent, breached a hole in the exclusive serfdom. 06010411
1. It is because of serfdom ancestry of many entrepreneurs from farmers for certain hard to recover, events long past can resurrect sometimes only the surviving legends. Focus on one. There was Sheremetiev gardener Peter Eliseev. In winter 1812 the manor had gathered a lot of distinguished guests. In the midst of a feast for dessert was served fresh strawberries that incredibly surprised everyone and caused a storm of enthusiasm. Count publicly called his gardener and asked about the most important of his desire. Eliseev asked for his freedom. One year later, in St. Petersburg there was a modest wine trade and colonial goods Peter Eliseev, and by 1821 an energetic master hired in St. Petersburg Customs a separate room for foreign wines [73; 234]. So there was a firm "Brothers Eliseev" with shops and cellars for Russian and foreign wines, mountains of fruit from overseas, domestic ham sausage, biscuits, sweets, unprecedented in Europe. In addition to shops, Eliseevs owned apartment houses, vineyards, confectionery, stud in Ekaterinoslav province, diluted known throughout southern seed of rye "Eliseevskiy." But every commercial enterprise was a wide field of creativity and fully reflects the personality and character of its creator. 06010501
1. Finding biographies of typical European entrepreneurs is not difficult, but it seems to me important to highlight the life of the new Moses, who has at the turn of the century brought his people out of capitalist captivity. Such became Robert Owen (1771-1858), the initiator of the Factories Act, 1818, the author of the Bill of Ten Hours (1847). Owen, who was born in a poor family from an early age engaged in purely practical activities. Nine years he was a barman in a shop merchant and early showed a significant practical sharpness. As clerk cloth shops and Charge d'Affaires Robert Owen traveled to cities and rural townships of England, gaining invaluable experience and some wealth. 18-year-old Owen with a companion organizes a workshop for the production of cotton-spinning machines, then opens his small company in Manchester. In the summer of 1799, he met with Delem owned Cotton Manufactory in New Lanark in Scotland, then marries the daughter of a manufacturer, which transmits extremely frustrated business in the hands of his son in law. 06020001
2. Having become the managing director of this production with two thousand workers, R. Owen quickly discovers insignificance of income from it, the poor quality of manufactured goods, carelessness, indifference, apathy and alcoholism of workers, mutual distrust and hostility between employers and employees. Young manager is convinced that the man is by nature neither bad nor good, but becomes one or the other under the circumstances. Guided by this conviction, Owen sought shorter hours, higher wages, reduced the proportion of child labor (children were behind the machines from 6 am to 7 pm), created a whole network of educational nature (public kitchens, dining rooms and houses, shops of supplies for workers at a cheaper priced provisions, better pensions for the elderly, mutual fund, medical aid for sick, help in sickness). 06020002
3. Acting in favor of the workers, he could not violate the interests of partners, which soon gave him free rein. Their ideas and intentions Owen inspired several assistants, whom he chose from among honest and clever workers. The Managing Director has not received a penny lucre from renting apartments with all the comforts of home and trimmed from the sale of products and items to the factory market. 06020003
4. "From your diligence and the quality of your work - Owen urged workers - depends on the quantity and quality of products factory, we can produce for sale. The more products and the higher will be their dignity, the more income on perfume factory. An increase in income will give me the opportunity to do more in your favor - to raise wage charge, reducing the number of working hours, to increase the convenience of your room, etc. You see, consequently, that working well, you're not only to my profits donating your labor, but it is meaning also your own direct benefit" [19, t. IV; 16]. 06020004
5. Contemporaries noted a complete change of the working population of the Scottish town belonging to the Englishman Owen at first from a pure mistrust and hostility, as if he had a magic power to eradicate the bad qualities of people and their moral regeneration. Justice and prudence combined in him with unusual honesty and truthfulness in all ridderly commercial transactions. Owen himself four years later, when the New Lanark was nowhere known, summed up the practice of mutual services: 06020005
6. "Both sides experienced all the incalculable benefits the system adopted. Steel factory hardworking, modest, healthy, different devotion to their masters and life in harmony with one another. At the same time, also the hosts were moved from their affection, almost without supervision, much more benefits than could be obtained by other system not based on mutual trust and forbearance. " 06020006
7. Every year thousands of curious people from all over Europe frequented in the Eden idyll of Owen, including persons in leading positions. In 1801, in New Lanark visited Alexander I. praises the successes of the British entrepreneur Prince Metternich (1773-1859), head of the Austrian government. King of Prussia sent Owen gold medal. 06020007
8. Evidence exists that Nicholas I (1796-1855), while still Grand Duke, examined children's shelter, workshops and homes of workers, had a long conversation with the owner and concluded by suggesting: "Your country is full of population; go to Russia with two million of your countrymen and organize them into the community, just as here; I willingly accept them" [19, t. IV; 8]. 06020008
9. On his impressions of the meeting with Nicholas I himself Owen, holy old man and a truly great thinker, in 1852 as told AI Herzen (1812-1870): 06020009
10. "- I look forward to great things from your homeland - Owen told me - you field is cleaner, your priests are not as strong, not as hidebound prejudices... and then sildenafil and with some silt. If the emperor wanted to grasp and understand the new requirements arising harmonious world, as it could easily be done by one of the greatest men. 06020010
11. Smiling, I asked my dragoman say to Owen that I have very little hope that Nicholas would become his follower.
12. Cotton mill R. Owen worked effectively; value of output in 1798 was 60 thousand pounds, in 1812 it was estimated to 200 thousand pounds, and the income from it reached 12% of the final amount [59; 146]. 06020012
13. The main literary work of R. Owen was the "New View of Society or experience about the principles of the formation of human nature" (1813-1816). The first essay starts with a number: the number of persons belonging to the working and poor classes of Great Britain and Ireland, more than 12 million people, nearly three-quarters of the population of the British Isles. Owen mentions human nature as poor, maligned and humiliated. By the destruction of poverty author considered moral reformation of man; man, in his opinion, does not create and can not by itself create a character. Responsibility for the advantages and disadvantages falls entirely on society. The author explains: 06020013
14. "Man in all his actions depends on the surrounding circumstances. Complete, absolute freedom does not exist and never existed. Therefore, a person can not be held responsible for what he has a bad temper, or false beliefs. Likewise, all the practical consequences of a bad mind or will not be be traced directly to the fault of the individual, and should be attributed to the action of the same circumstances. Changing human nature may occur, therefore, only with a change of the social environment in which people live. This latest change should be accomplished by improving the material life of the masses and by educating new generations on a completely new basis ""[] 9 hectares. IV; 20]. 06020014
15. Owen also formulated general principles applicable, according to him, to all people and circumstances:
16. Aristocrats and government officials industrialized developing England R. Owen seemed wise elder, forefather of the virtuous, moderator of anarchic impulses of the lower classes, half-mayor, half school teacher. Duke of Kent, the king's brother, was several times attending the meetings of supporters of R. Owen and recommended his ideas throughout the English aristocracy. But philanthropic socialist did not enjoy favour of common European authorities for their benefit: it is known that speculation on philanthropy rarely succeeds and even under the most conscientious and humane, fraud can deliver millions to shrewd scoundrels. 06020021
17. On the contrary, since 1818, Owen begins persistent parliamentary fight for their ideas, unfolding before the eyes of the opponents simple truths: idlers and rogues should not be able to enrich themselves at the expense of the labor of others, and stately fools classify as criminals people who disagree with their views. Owen's first defeat brings hin to propose law on education of children of workers and of non-interference in the business school of religious instruction. According to scientists clerics announced the formation of human character heretical and immoral. Owen, in response directly accused the clerical direction of impotence and emptiness for what it is, interpreting of morality and goodness, in fact turns the servant of the powerful and do not care about the welfare of millions of people who were dying under the yoke of their oppressors. 06020022
18. The bottom line is: the salvation of official restrictions and obstacles at home leads Owen in the United States, where he was in 1824 in Indiana gets village with 30,000 acres of land. After meeting with the President and twice appeared before Congress, entrepreneur launches his plan. Colony called New Harmony, filled with settlers of different nationalities, religions, character and abilities. United aliens only inherent in all poverty and hope to live free from want and no worries on account of the benefactor. Belief of R. Owen in that man is good and necessary needs of life are unimportant, disdain work and eat the fruits of others' labor, that work itself comprises many attractive features and that life on someone else's expense is hard and disgusting for every man, was in fact a childish mistake. 06020023
19. But impromptu sound system, undertaken in the community of the colony of New Harmony, did not go unnoticed. Reibo Louis, one of the opponents of Owen, who considered his ideas not only chimerical, but even harmful, could not but admit: 06020024
20. "He had all improved methods of education, and he was able to achieve a friendly young man and diligent agricultural work. In the main center of the colony were established society of agriculture and mechanical arts, and a handful of decent people who followed Owen began to form its suggestions and mitigate rude almost wild population. Here was given balls, concerts, evenings; lowest level workers were engaged with classes of most delicate... Coined was a special costume: for women: dress with a few antique cut, for men to Greek tunics and wide trousers. Much as possible, Owen tried to wean their colonists from thousands conditional subtleties that our vanity made in our public life and which the root lies partly in the habits of all, partly in the pretensions of a few" [19, t. IV; 30]. 06020025
21. In 1829, Robert Owen, making many disagreements and disastrous antipathy existimg between the New and Old World, returned to England. Confidential letters and dispatches of a peacemaker were successful: it went well and was completed to mutual satisfaction of England and the United States. His eldest son became a US envoy in Naples. 06020026
22. R. Owen tirelessly travels from town to town with a justification of the manifesto of the founding of a reasonable society and religion, stopping primarily in industrial centers: Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham and others. Participation in the cooperative labor movement and the theoretical propaganda of their ideas, the publication of journals and polemical pamphlets, boldness and breadth of views expressed by a good nature, tranquility and simplicity, contributed to the fact that in 1840, Queen Victoria wished to listen Owen and learn about his system. 06020027
23. Here are just a few items of the "Manifesto" of Robert Owen, the founder of a reasonable society and religion: 06020028
24. "The history of mankind proves irresistible hitherto undeveloped human mind, and each of its pages confirms the details of how mad and confused were his aspirations. 06020029
25. History has hitherto only series of wars, murders, robberies, endless divisions, mutual counteraction different angles to each other to achieve a peaceful and happy state; in history hitherto been a time when everyone was at enmity with anyone and everyone - at enmity with anyone - a principle surprisingly adapted to to produce as much evil and as little as possible of happiness" [19, t. IV; 38]. 06020030
26. Instead of deep ignorance Owen offered mankind a system in which everyone is provided with the total cooperation of all and everything - the promotion of each facing the needs and possibilities of human nature. He hoped that his system will stop the increase of pauperism, destroy all superstitions, which dominate the world, and will remove all causes of separation of people make work productive, easier and more enjoyable. Owen aspects of social radicalism and declared the "Manifesto": 06020031
27. "Forgiving mistakes of earlier social life and not wanting anything to offend the conscience, the new system will arrange things so that the old superstition of every nation will die its natural death, with the least possible inconvenience to individuals whose existence is connected with them, and with the greatest possible human mercy to weaknesses" [19, t. IV; 39]. 06020032
28. Referring to his half-century of experience, the author of "Manifesto" spread unheard plans in four essential, in his view, fields of human life: 1) production; 2) distribution of wealth; 3) in the formation of human character from childhood; 4) the establishment of local and general management. 06020033
29. Persecution of himself and his followers to the system ("I'm one of its originator") R. Owen was not afraid and publicly stated: 06020034
30. "From the beginning of my field, I had no support: I'm not afraid, acting only in the interests of truth itself, in contradiction with the deep-rooted prejudices of the preceding centuries. Already since I was prepared to fines and imprisonment, and death - even on the scaffold. And that can mean all such troubles for the person who is imbued with all one desire: to be useful for mankind?.. I have lived his life quietly and without fuss, happy with myself and my family. Last name Owen in New Lanark, Scotland, and in New Harmony, in America, was by one of the happiest on this and on the other side of the Atlantic. It is true that I'm all over my state, to the last shilling devoted to the promotion of my great and wonderful things, as money was of some use in the promotion of his success... I am happy in my life; I'll be happy also in death, and more: be independent of this world, decrepit, immoral and unwise" [19, TLC; 45-46]. 06020035
31. Our hero died in Newton, his place of birth, died quietly, without agony, almost without any pain. For half an hour before his death, said that he feels good and pleasant. His last words were: "It's isolation." 06020036
32. The reader will say, you react to breed entrepreneurs utopian dreamer, romantic, impractical and even reckless person; he could enrich philanthropy - and squandered his fortune to the poor; could become the darling of the authorities and parties - and hardened them against themselves. 06020037
33. But with the intention to transform our sinful world for his ideas and drawings, which he announced in the "Book of the New Moral World" and checked on the fate of thousands of people made happy they could live only independent people of this world, and, therefore, a true entrepreneur. 06020038
1. Relation between freedom and money A.S. Pushkin praised in the famous "Conversation with the bookseller poet," first appeared as an introduction to the first chapter of the novel "Eugene Onegin" in February 1825 Bespechny, a rich writer, who wrote of inspiration; not from the board, elected in a polemic with the bookseller freedom instead of the noisy light, music n windy fashion, heed the useful truth from the mouth of the bookseller:
"Our age is of commerce; age of iron
no freedom without money."
Agreeing with this advice, the first professional Russian poet responds adequately, aphoristic, at all times: "Not for Sale inspiration,
But you can sell a manuscript." Personal freedom ("for the government, for livery
Do not bend no conscience, no thoughts, no neck") Pushkin valued above all concerns the busy world. But the question Englishman "What is freedom?" In "Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg" (1834), the author says: "Freedom is the opportunity to enroll on their own." 06030001
2. I think that on the basis of his character will "Talk bookseller poet" conciliatory offers: "Here's my manuscript conditions." In the latter verb just concluded a function of the market as a sphere of commodity circulation, trade. Pushkin felt this area not only because of the extraordinary versatility of genius, but also in full compliance with his time. He was interested in all those lovely little things that "sells London delicate
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| 44. The confectionery Wolf and Beranger. Saint Petersburg |
3. The study of Adam Smith "On the causes and nature of the Wealth of Nations" was translated into Russian at public expense, and the young Pushkin studied this work at the Lyceum. Economic theory and natural law school students to read Professor A.P. Kunitsyn (1783-1840), earned the gratitude of the young line A. Pushkin,
4. «The people were before the government" - a thesis defended by lawyer Kunitsyn. "Serf has no property, because he does not belong to himself," was considering economist Kunitsyn. In 1821 he was suspended from duties of the professor. In the book "History of the Pugachev rebellion" Pushkin left the inscription: "To Alexander Petrovich Kunitsyn from the author as a sign of deep respect and gratitude January 11. 1835". Pushkin always admired lectures of Kunitsyn and, according to P.A. Pletnev, "personally to him until his death kept constant respect". 06030005
5. Work must be always and everywhere free, organized on the basis of a free capitalist employment - so says another contemporary of Pushkin, one of his political teachers and the best educated economists of his age, a graduate of Moscow and ghetto tingenskogo universities, N.I. Turgenev, who, like Pushkin, the devil managed to be born in Russia with the soul and talent. And in Russia, we know where he was born there and handy. It is in the room older friend Pushkin wrote an ode "Liberty" (1817), called:
6. N.I. Turgenev developed several variants of the liberation of the serfs. The main proposal for the development of agriculture was reduced them to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of landed estates into capitalist. The head of the Union of Welfare and prominent member of the Northern Society Pushkin dedicated sublime lines:
7. In "The experience of the theory of taxes" (1818), one of the first works on the economy, written in Russian in Russian Decembrist Turgenev opposed the privileges of the upper classes, especially in taxation, and it is determined that the income of the state should be as far as possible less burdensome for the people. "Taxes have the means to achieve the goal of society or the state, that is the goal that people assume when you connect yourself in your society" - this is the formula of the author, who all proceeds from the sale of the book has provided funds for the benefit of farmers held in prison for arrears in payment taxes. Taxes rose after the war (for a brief age of Pushkin, by the way, occurred fifteen years of the Napoleonic wars, the Russian-Persian and Russian-Turkish campaigns, the conquest of the Caucasus, the Polish uprising), and increased the number of defaulters. 06030008
8. And although, according to Pushkin himself, he was denied the gods "in the sweet engagement to dispute taxes," to which he, in truth, did not complain, did not pass the poet by socio-economic woes unfinished "History of the Village Gorukhino" (1830); such, for example, the last axiom clerk: "The richer man, so it is spoiled, the poorer, the attention", so that "In three years Goriukhino completely impoverished... and the day of the temple festival has become not a day of joy and rejoicing, but the anniversary sorrow and remembrance of sad. " Goryuhinsky satire reflected fully in the work of M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin (1826-1889). 06030009
9. During the reign of Alexander I (1801-1825), especially after the victory over Napoleon in Russia is growing interest in commerce, published works, N.S. Mordvinova, Admiral, honest Russian economist, popular in the Decembrist circles, reformer of the domestic financial system ("Are you awake vigilantly over the royal treasury"), chairman of the Free Economic Society in the 1823-1840 biennium. Pushkin wrote to Vyazemsky (1824) observed that Mordvinians "encompasses one entire Russian opposition." 06030010
10. According to N.S. Mordvinov, private interest involves an explicit laws that protect private property, its freedom from abuse and justice. Private interest can not be reached: no freedom of work and personality, without freedom of economic activity. It expresses clear on the nature of the statute no bargaining, no craft or art can not thrive without the freedom of action of its own. 06030011
11. The government of Alexander I began to strive for the elimination of serfdom, the idea of which was inspired by the disadvantages become popular and famous in Russia upomyanutgym writing of Adam Smith. Wary violate the interests of the landowners, the community entered a new idea, which consisted in the fact that serfdom was difficult not only for the enslavement of the peasants, but also profitable for landlords. Free Economic Society announced a competition for two tasks: 06030012
12. "What's more profitable for the owner: to cultivate the land by private individuals or private farmers?"; 06030013
13. "How to separate in landowners' estates farmers of factory workers?". 06030014
14. The note under the then fashionable title "Draft declaration of rights" N.S. Mordvinov, Prince V.P. Kotchubey (one of the closest friends of the sovereign) and Count N.N. Novosiltsev (author of the project for the establishment of ministries in Russia) offered to Alexander I: 06030015
15. "Is it possible to provide both public and landowner peasants the right to buy land without homes, what we mean by the expression of the wasteland, to enable them to certify documents for this property in the courts, without resorting to dummy persons, as they do now, and, finally, to guarantee them the property that will belong to them in the same extent that other members of society have the right to dispose of property. This is an event that is not impractical, would in our country infinitely positive effects: it would induce farmers to process large areas of virgin land and try poluschit maybe more from the lands which belong to them as private property; In addition, such an event would greatly increase our annual production and would allow us aware more clearly than in any decree or law was, in the true nature of the property, that is what most farmers did not even giving itself the report. Easy to understand, it is necessary that they have learned to distinguish between the role of the owner of the role of the farmer hired and that they began to feel the need to respect property. After all, a lack of understanding of this and the dangers associated with their release or with excessive force against them" [60; 160-161]. 06030016
16. It is curious that this declaration to his Majesty was published a century later in the magazine "Russian Archives" in P.A. Stolypin, who tried to instill the true essence of Russian peasant property. 06030017
17. In the early years of the reign of Alexander I turned serious discussion on ways of further development of Russia. AK Storch (1766- 1835), an economist, a follower of Adam Smith, a teacher of the Grand Duke Constantine and Nicholas expressly stated in his course of political economy (published in French in 1815), that "if, despite all the encouragement of industry for a century and a half, she still made so little progress, it is mainly the fault of slavery... In industry, the superiority of free working on a slave even more obvious than in agriculture." 06030018
18. In the early years of the reign of Alexander I turned serious discussion on ways of further development of Russia. AK Storch (1766-1835), an economist, a follower of Adam Smith, a teacher of the Grand Duke Constantine and Nicholas expressly stated in his course of political economy (published in French in 1815), that "if, despite all the encouragement of industry for a century and a half, she still made so little progress, it is mainly the fault of slavery... In industry, the superiority of free working on a slave even more obvious than in agriculture. " 06030019
19. Of publication in the "Spirit of magazines": 06030020
20. "The farmer buried in the ground grain, but must wait its vegetating and fertilization. Agricultural people have the most devout, but also are the most peaceful, strong and well-behaved. He also is the most humble to the king. He is tied to his native land that nurtured him. Workman expects nothing from God and all from the machine; and if the Lord did not send him to the disease, it can hardly be thought of as God. Community of several hundred or thousands of artisans, and living and working together forever without any property, nourishing in them the spirit of riot and rebellion. Frequent riots in English cities manufactories are proof of that." [59; 156]. 06030021
21. Said AK Storch, Vice-President of the Academy of Sciences, preaching reconciliation with the inevitable enslavement of the Russian people, and taught the heirs of Russian throne: "Russia's favor requires the assigned rights craft and trade richest her powers; Russia in its present position should not be and is not able to get out of dependence on alien peoples. " 06030022
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| 45. Type of cable factory in St. Petersburg on Petrovsky Island (1800) |
22. There was also the opposite view: people just agricultural always poor. Main opponent Storch Count N.S. Mordvinov argued that Russia has all prerequisites and conditions in order to become an industrial country, and to find the right balance between industry, agriculture and trade. "To assume that everything is done Frenchman, a German, an Englishman will always be better produced by Russian and Russian that generally can not with this side to achieve perfection of other nations, it would be extremely disappointing and unfair - wrote Mordvinians young king. - What is this generous, hardworking and friendly to all people deserve such as insulting opinion? Who does not know that success in any kind of education were more in Russia than in any other land? Who would also deny able to Russian peasant was not pereimchivee Frenchman, a German, an Englishman?" [59; 157]. 06030024
23. Not accidentally Mordvinov was popular in the Decembrist circles. He is the only member of the State Council endorsed in 1824 extended N.I. Turgenev proposal to repeal the "carrot and whip" as means of punishment. Defenders of this kind of punishment in Pushkin branded epigram "intercessor carrot and whip." In December 1825 Mordviniovpresented his opinion to Nicholas I about the meaninglessness of death and during the trial of the Decembrists was the only member of the Commission of Inquiry, to speak out against the death penalty. Chief of gendarmes Benckendorf characterized Mordvinov as a pillar of the party Russian patriots and thought they advocated social and economic ideas that are dangerous because "their password is the salvation of Russia." 06030025
24. Such fears (though in the name of Nicholas I) Benckendorf expressed also to Pushkin about the poet's notes "On public education" (December 1826): "The adoption of a rule you, though education and genius are the exclusive basis of excellence, there is usually dangerous for the general tranquility, brings you on the edge of a precipice, and plunges you into the community of young people." 06030026
25. Pushkin did not find liberal times, trying to answer the question: "Where did we go?" Spare the reader, not preached and not agitated. His only weapon was the word was: "Verb burn the hearts of men." When Pushkin died, the emperor ordered to pay the debts of the poet - 120,000 rubles, the sum in those days huge: full-fledged living soul of serf in that Iron Age was worth a hundred rubles. 06030027
1. Securing of serfdom in Russia, one of the decrees of Boris Godunov (c. 1552-1605) historians explain in different ways: one - the introduction and establishment of protected years Ivan the Terrible scribe books; Others blame the circumstances, without specifying them; the third is called the cause of peasant debt.... 06040001
1. The last reason is obvious. Settling on the land, the peasants as the lessee enters into agreements with landowners, or series of order, first - oral, then - writing letters or poryadnye record. The earliest surviving records poryadnyh refers to the 1544 settlers, tenants, tenants were obliged to pay dues in favor of the landowner different kinds of agricultural products (rye, barley, wheat, oats, etc.). Size dues determined by the number of measures from the area or a certain share of the harvest from the pressed sheaves or umolochennogo grain (one-half to one sixth). Landowners also receive a small income farmers chickens, eggs, butter, meat, fish, berries, mushrooms and so on. From the middle of the XVI century natural rents and small income are increasingly being replaced fees, but finally they did not displace [22; 316, 318]. 06040101
2. Peasants and tenants fulfill the obligation to pay various government fees and serving duties without disobedience. Help loan or lease privilege peasant turned around interest-bearing loans, the growth bondage. The usual rate of interest in the borrowed bondage X \ 1. stereotypically defined: as goes to the people at five or six, that is equal to 20%. Five years later, a busy capital doubled. 06040102
3. Serfdom, determine the fate of the peasant class, divided the peasants as beasts of consistent land on which they sat - on the court, chernososhnyh (state), the monastery, the landlords, the seat assigned to the mining, factories, etc. Needing a tax population and seeking razverstat poll tax at all, Peter's decree of 1722 was ordered to write all the streetwalkers soldiers, and "unfit enjoin yourself priiskat such that they would have written for him in the poll salary, and if no one accepts, the add send to exile in Siberia, so that through the wobbly and idle without works and without payment capitation money was no one" [13; 243]. 06040103
4. Voluntary or semi-free peasants, the law does not recognize. Moreover, the peasants were deprived of the right to enter into contracts (except for hiring supply) and pay off, they were forbidden to use promissory notes and other borrowings letters, and most importantly - to acquire property of the estate, even uninhabited. Decree 1730 of Peter I's niece Anna not only confirmed the ban Code of 1649, according to which "the people and knights monastery servants and buying estates in hock to keep not told", but also enjoined "boyar people and monastic servants and peasants all their real estate estate to sell, with the announcement of this decree in six months; and if in six months, will not be sold, and those real estates are taken for us, "that is, unsubscribe to Her Imperial Majesty [13; 244]. User Mezhevaya 1754 forbade own land and commoner. 06040104
5. Against the abuses of power of the landlords tried to restore even Peter the Great, prohibiting, for example, the sale of the peasants without land and act locally. Serfs could independently engage in various peasant industries, but are vulnerable to extortion decrees and power of the landlords. 06040105
6. Despotism and slavery contrary to human nature, as well as serfdom view, accompanied by belittling and strangled personality, could not become the norm, to conquer the mind and conscience. This is evidenced by publicist dedicated line contemporary of Peter, the owner of the peasants Ivan Pososhkov, author of "The Book of Poverty and Wealth", addressed to the Emperor: 06040106
7. "The landowners on their peasants impose grievous burdens; for there is such inhuman nobility that the working time does not give farmers their single day, hedgehog would he assume that work. And thus arable and pasture time and lose all they have. And in this way their peasants cannot complete his own stocks, and take position, and still he is required to excessive fees, and the exuberance of peasants leads to poverty, and the farmer will be gradually posytee, then it will add also taxes. And for this order such peasealAndthiscannot have a rich landowner; and many nobles say: peasant does not come to work, but shaves him as their sheep naked and destroys the kingdom, Inasmuch as they rob that other's goats and leave. From that of the needs leave their home and run - in other settled place, and still others in Ukraine, and others in foreign cocountries, in such way inhabit foreign countries, and leave his own empty"[62; 247]. 06040107
8. In the first decades after the death of Peter I the landowners were allowed to sell the peasants to the army, that is authorized to sell people, then to exile them to Siberia, to give them to hard work, and finally, in 1767 deprived of the right to file petitions to landlords ("as petitioner and their associates were to be punished by whip, and referred directly to the eternal work in Nerchinsk, setting off their time as landlords' recruits"). 06040108
9. "In order to give new encouragement to agriculture and petty industry by means suitable to Russia in space and its position," Alexander I in one of the first decrees of 1801 recognized the right to acquire any necessary under different names known land without owning peasants and all that on the surface and in the depths of them are, to extend to all Russian citizens, except of those who are numbered among the landed estates. That is, again excluding the serfs. 06040109
10. Question of PY Chaadaev (1794-1856): What makes a country where one day one of the people ended up in bondage to another? remained unanswered. 06040110
11. The youngest grandson of Catherine II, Nicholas I, in the manifesto in 1826 solemnly declared that "all sorts of rumors about the state peasants freedom from paying taxes and serfs and palace people from obedience to their masters, whether these rumors are false, fictitious, or disclosed by malicious people from one covetousness, so that by now, getting rich on the basis of these rumors at the expense of the peasants, in their naivete" [19, t. II; 256]. The manifesto was read half a year at the churches, auctions and fairs. 06040111
12. In the 1830s, published a series of laws and decrees dealing with entrepreneurship (bill charter , statutes of the bankrupt, the stock exchange, on joint-stock companies, and others.) And with a view to secure strict supervision and intervention in this activity on the part of government officials in the capital and in other places. Decrees and laws of Nicholas I bypassed (not written for us) enterprising nobles, tax farmers, court bankers, contractors, and a small group of privileged businessmen associated with the treasury and the state apparatus. 06040112
1. The Crimean War (1853-1856) was a war of imperialist Europe against Russia. National drama of the military defeat reflected primarily the general inefficiency of management, expressed huge financial deficit, which during the war has grown from 52 to 307 mln silver rubles and put the country on the brink of bankruptcy [34; 44]. The circulation of money Russia experienced is clearly inflationary: as paper money turned almost to 1 billion rub. The amount is several times the size of state budget revenues. 06040201
2. For half a century Russia's share of world trade did not change: in 1800 - 3.7%, in 1850 - 3.6 %. In one of the largest exporters of agricultural products in the United States during this period appeared later Australia and Canada. 06040202
3. Became clear the need for liberation from feudal patriarchal routine. 06040203
4. Decomposition of feudalism manifested in all areas of economic life, including financial and monetary. Two-thirds of estates with 7 million peasants were laid in the bank; debt for the estate was laid more than 450 mln. rubles. On various measures to cover the deficit in the budget suffered especially the peasantry, which were re-enslavement of the economic impact of leases. N.P. Ogarev (1813-1877) wrote in 1856: 06040204
5. " The man produces and sells a quarter of bread rye for two silver rubles. From this quarter is made seven buckets of spirits and sold to peasant in retail sales each bucket by seven silver rubles, ie a quarter of rye changed into spirits, 2 p. translates into 49 p. Tax incredible!" [59; 167]. 06040205
6. During the social and political thought of the first half of the XIX century became widespread opinion that the liberation of the serfs should lead to the elimination of economic and military backwardness of Russia compared with the West and the replacement of the autocratic monarchy by constitutional order, ie the bourgeois state of law. To guard the public order was a challenge for government minds and general excitement that gripped the peasantry after the riots, caused by the Crimean War. 06040206
1. Alexander II (1818-1881), emperor from 1855, in March 1856, after the conclusion of the Treaty of Paris appealed to Moscow to the marshals of the nobility with the words for consideration: "The existing order of possession of souls can not remain unchanged. It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it begins to be lifted by itself below" [19, t. II; 262]. In memory of N.A. Dobrolyubova then imprinted March passion with which people in St. Petersburg immediately rushed to the Senate bookshop when a rumor went out that a decree to relieve farmers has been published and is available. 06040301
2. Detailed political vision of the emperor was based on ripeness for new changes in economic conditions. Russia after the Crimean War, with its antiquated means of communication could not play the same role in the European concert. And it became obvious that the nascent of extensive network of railways could not eat on the farming, but above all - the industrial and commercial capital to meet state needs. The upcoming release of 20 million serfs that could create a class of wage-workers, could be an important tool for attracting domestic and foreign capital in the Russian industry. Serfs in the country as a whole accounted for 34% of the population (Census 1858). In the European part of the Russian serfs held from 30 to 70% of the population; beyond the Urals their number was minimal. 06040302
3. March 5, 1861 was published a manifesto on the peasant reform: "Serfdom of the peasants, interned in the landed estates is canceled forever." 06040303
4. In 1862 we celebrated the Millennium of Russia; it is to this date that was dated the abolition of serfdom. Reform again, as in the times of Peter I, was a top-down rather than bottom-up; to reach the lower strata of the people do not have time to reform. Owner of the land remained state. Peasants have long existed on ideology, considered uncorrupted, pure people, special carriers of moral values; needed to protect them from immorality. Civil law Russian peasant farmer was formed on the basis of family and community order, to the detriment of the beginnings of individuality, autonomy in decision-making, personal responsibility, entrepreneurship. Farmers are aware that the Orthodox emperor, their historical trustee, protector of the weak, the suffering, the needy, is the supreme landowner, release them, and finally from the corvee and dues. With the release of land surrendered in order not to individual farmers but communities: technically it greatly simplifies the process of transfer stations. In addition to the community, homestead preserved land ownership. In all this are hiding deeper causes of resistance to the transformation of peasant lands to private ownership. P.N. Miliukov opposed the idea of private property, it is hardly developed in Russia, the principle of nationalization of the land (in the sense of recognition of the supreme state ownership on the ground). This principle is called by the historian as ancient Moscow principle. In the possession of community right was about 81% of the allotment of peasant lands. The popular mind, the development of which takes place over the centuries, is psychologically very difficult to change. 06040304
1. The process of emancipation of the serfs in accordance with the "Regulations of February 19" consisted of two stages. At first the peasants were declared free, but the land remained the property of the landowners. For every nobleman had an average of about 1,000 tithes per capita peasant landowner had 3.6 acres. 06040401
2. For the use of their allotments peasants were still carried feudal obligations on the basis of dues received by the landlord on the basis of 6% per annum on the capital. Of this amount, the Treasury gave out three-quarters to the landlord in cash or interest-bearing securities. 06040402
3. After determining the conditions of purchase of land, the second phase of liberation followed: the peasants could buy their plots of land from the landlords in 49 years, paying the state substantial indemnity payments or cash rents. In many cases, landlords cut off part of the peasant land in their favor. In general, the landlords had up to one-third of all land estates. Redemption appointed by the government, was higher than the price of land, if the selling price of land holdings in non-black, black soil and western regions was less than 544 million rub. The declared value amounted to 867 million rubles. In this ratio the rented area was appreciated for rent, but not for intensive farming, but for elementary use. According to the 27 provinces of European Russia, the average rent in the end of XIX century was 34% of the value of gross output and 81% of net income . 06040403
4. The reform of 1861 caused agrarian overpopulation, the decline in agricultural and industrial production due to the outflow of labor. Reform did not only free, but also partly left pedileft empty-handed. Taking away from the peasants the land they needed, lhandeded provided themselves free labor force. Not by chance, after 1861 began to fall pig iron from one to four thousand pounds per year. The redemption amount was much higher than the market value of the land and often exceed the yield of peasant economy, which caused two important consequences:
5. Already in the 70-ies Russia had become a country with signs of a developed market economy, at the opposite pole remained a part that still maintained the natural decaying relationship. A significant part of the nobility, despite the benefits, could not rebuild their economy on capitalist lines. By the early 90s landowners sold more than 1/3 of their pre-reform land [65; 50-51]. 06040405
6. But the land was given not to individuals, but the whole society. As a matter of fact it was reasoned that private hereditary possession on it is impossible but it could only be in a lifelong use. 06040406
1. Russia's transition from an agricultural economy to handicrafts and industrial (in England the same farming was occupied by only one-third of the population) increasingly city populated and bring them into a flourishing state, began and was seen. Infancy stage with respect to the free development of the national economy on market principles. Even before the reform was born the class of entrepreneurs in railway construction. Russian business people are increasingly using modern forms and tools of business (shares, bills, bonds), increasing their interest in exchange activities, the creation of joint-stock companies. 06050001
1. Starting from 1863, to trade occupations, including industry, was allowed participation of all states, both sexes, Russian nationals and foreigners. The exceptions were the priests and clergymen, Protestant preachers who were in positions and lower ranks of the military, in active service. 06050101
2. Prussian economist and traveler A. Haxthausen (1792-1866), whose writings influenced the Russian social thought, observed that "Moscow has become the center of factory activity and noble city become a manufacturing town; a significant portion of the nobility turned into factory entrepreneurs ... If you ask now, who owns the palace, you will get the answer: to fabrikant such and such or such a man, a merchant, and earlier - Prince A. or B." [59; 162]. 06050102
3. A little later Count EF Kankrin (1774-1845), Russia's finance minister, author of essays "Economies of human societies" (in French), wrote: 06050103
4. "Our peasant are lacking only some forbearance from hot drinks, strict morality in the family life, clear notions of his duty and the arts; otherwise he would be Croesus to foreign farmers and blissful creation in the agricultural world" [59; 163]. 06050104
5. According to witty expression of Haxthausen, through the development and dissemination of industry obrok system of serfdom in Russia has become a Saint-Simonism. Inside Saint-Simonians demanded that everyone got according to abilities, and the owner of the quitrent peasants took from them on his abilities. 06050105
6. About extraordinary propensity of the Russian peasant to industrial activities shows also another German economist Friese (spinning and weaving of flax; diverse trades related to the processing of wood and wood products: weaving mats, screens, sieves, shoes, doing wheel arches, sled, wood-sledge, wooden dishes, race resins and tar). Fur, leather, rawhide production were widespread peasant industries. Whole villages in the Nizhny Novgorod and other neighboring provinces gave business in iron processing. In the villages developed processing and minting of precious metals. All ships ploughing the Volga, Kama, Oka and other navigable rivers of Russia, were built by peasants. 06050106
7. Farmers themselves started doing for themselves baize, often commercially available; Some villages are exclusively engaged in the manufacture of hats, others - boots, and third - furniture, fourth flourished in shoe or shoe crafts, in the fifth (for example, Gzhel) all the inhabitants were engaged in manufacturing pottery and chinaware. 06050107
8. With the expansion liberation in government manufactories and factories hired labor was increasing and number of workers familiar with the advanced techniques of production. Returning home, they spread throughout the rural byways (MI Tugan-Baranovsky expression) new technical skills and techniques: Factory is a technical school for the craftsman. 06050108
9. But the period of industrial capitalism in Russia began in the pre-reform period. 06050109
10. Characteristic in this respect, the figures in the Russian import of machines and tools for half a century before the peasant reform (1811-1860), amounting to 83,974 thousand rub. silver [59; 168], which resulted in doubling the length of railways in the first twenty years of the post-reform, by the beginning of 1880 more than 22 thousand km. 06050110
11. Such industrial growth observed in this period, and other indicators of imports , especially of raw material for industry. Thus, the import of cotton in the 1801-1810 biennium amounted to 16 thousand pud and in the 1851-1860 biennium to 2143.5 thousand pud, increase of 134 times. Import of yarn with 59 thousand pud in the 1801-1810 decennium. almost tripled and reached 164 thousand pud. in the 1851-1860 biennium. More than doubled in the past also the export of flax fiber. 06050111
12. In a hundred times also increased domestic production of gold - 16 pud. in 1814 to 1569.65 pud in the 1851-1860 decennium. 06050112
13. In the second half of the XIX century developed various confectionery industry, vegetable oil production, manufacture of pasta, canned goods, margarine. By the end of the century in Russia there were more than 1,000 breweries. 06050113
14. Attention is drawn also by the demographic rise: the population of the empire in the 1860- 1897 decennium increased from 74 to 126 million. [65; 48]. 06050114
1. The rapid growth of Russian industry after the 1861 reform to a large extent was due to public investment - huge amounts of money borrowed by the tsarist government from foreign powers. Autocratic power provided Russian capitalists such sources of raw materials and markets, which no bourgeois government could have given them. 06050201
2. Emerging success of capitalist industry in Russia is not considered to be something awesome says in those days famous economist M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky (1865-1919), who concluded that Russia in many respects is very fertile ground for the highly developed industry. He wrote: "The great and far from exhausted, even almost not surveyed mineral wealth, the exploitation of which is in the south of Russia began just before our eyes; huge territory, thinly populated and providing a reasonable scope for internal colonization; large population, rapidly passing from subsistence to a cash economy and closed customs system in self-contained market, scarcely available for capitalist industry of other countries - all this creates an enabling environment for the Russian capitalist industry, devoid of any capitalist country in Western Europe." 06050202
3. However, per capita consumption, such as iron, lagged in Russia from the UK almost 14-fold (138 and 10 pounds per capita); on the same order as varied and falling per capita output of steam engines (England - 2400 LE, Russia - 200 LE). 06050203
4. The answer to the question why Russia lags behind the leading industrialized countries of Europe, M.P. Tugan-formulated in a nutshell: Russian lack of culture. Capitalism brings with it economic culture, but also presupposes it. That is what suggests the author of the study "Russian factory". Not him alone was conspicuous the low level of labor productivity in Russia (in England by 1000 spindles were 3 workers, in Russia 16.6). Despite the fact that the Russian workers received much less than Western European, Russian labor cost was almost more expensive than western. 06050204
5. An important reason for the technical backwardness of Russian industry were obvious: low wages, long working hours, mute worker, determined largely by his ignorance and illiteracy. But equally important was the difference between Russian and Western European capitalists in relation to entrepreneurship, knowledge of the case and the willingness to rise above the routine: foreign capitalists scared off many features of Russian domestic orders, in particular administrative regulation and petty restraint on the ground. N.G. Chernyshevsky, social activist, writer and scientist and economist, identified these conditions of social life in one word: aziatstvo. 06050205
6. Supporting this definition revolutionary democrat, legal Marxism Tugan-Baranovsky placed his hopes for the future: 06050206
7. "Although aziatstvo is still very strong in Russian life, yet we are Europeans, and the future does not belong to aziatstvo. Our cultural backwardness is reduced due to the development of the same capitalism. No Chinese wall can delay the penetration of Western forms of production, and Western culture. And so our prediction is that the successes Russian capitalist industry in recent years are only weak rudiments of powerful development of Russian capitalism, which will take place in the future" [59; 168-170]. 06050207
8. M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky quoted Karl Marx: "We suffer not only from the development of capitalist production, but also on the failure of such development; the only escape from all the evils of capitalism transition lies in its further development. " 06050208
9. First All-Russian Congress of manufacturers, breeders and those interested in the domestic industry (1870), reached a number of important decisions:
10. Discussions at the congress led to the adoption of resolutions in favor of the creation of a society of consumers, public savings and loan banks, mutual credit associations, societies for the production of industrial products, co-operatives for the bulk purchase of raw materials for the purpose of processing and marketing of finished goods. 06050213
1. Back in the 1830s, noble Russian liberals were divided into Westerners and Slavophiles (planters and the Manchesterists, supporters of economic liberalism); the fundamental difference between them lies in relation to Western European experience) economic development. 06060001
1. Slavophiles headed by A.S. Hamsters (1804-1860) published the pre-reform magazines of economic emphasis - "Russian conversation" and "Rural improvement", which called for the transition to civil liberties. Slavophiles were not opponents of capitalism, but were looking for a distinct development (God save us from the proletariat), primarily in performing different functions of private property (should serve as a means of production) and communal property (as a means to prevent the growth of social contrasts and conflicts that accompanied the development of capitalism in the West). Slavophiles rejected lucre and profit as a means of obtaining wealth; their level of economic culture is defined by formula IV Kireyevski (1806-1856), came to the fact that the main cause of wealth have a loan, and the mainspring of the loan have morals, and the source of all that is labor. Liberation of the peasants Slavophiles connected only with purchase of land, with a maximum in favor of the landlords. 06060101
1. Westernism in Russia was wider spread compared with Slavophilism: it included representatives of noble and bourgeois liberalism, assessed the economic, industrial and technological experience of the West, believed that the vastness of the empire is a serious obstacle to social contradictions. Westerners defended the evolutionary path of development; their main press organ was the weekly magazine "The economic index", the publisher and editor of which was professor at Kiev and Moscow universities I.V. Vernadsky (1821- 1884), the father of V.I. Vernadsky, future researchers noosphere. The task of political economy I.V. Vernadsky believed the discovery of the natural laws of production corresponding to human nature. As an advocate of large-scale production and large capital, a scientist at the same time deny large-scale landed property landlords. Labor I.V. Vernadsky called the main and only source of wealth and the foundation not only of man's relationship to nature, but also the relationship of man to man. 06060201
2. By the talented representatives of bourgeois liberalism in the pre-reform Russia belonged also professor of Kazan and Moscow universities I.K. Babst (1824-1881). Survived harsh judgments about academic nobility class of society, which he called ugly, arrogant and stupid and yet vile, as well as about Nicholas I: the support and sanctuary of all obsolete, old, stronghold of tyranny and darkness. 06060202
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| 46. Trading Exchange. Saint Petersburg |
3. In his speech of Kazan "On certain conditions favoring the multiplication of national capital" (1856) Babst determined the economic situation in Russia before the reform as a painful expressing antagonism between labor and capital. Capital itself, without the help of Mother Nature, nothing really can produce - said the young scientist - until each grain of capital will not be impregnated with the sweat of the working class. 06060204
4. In another, already Moscow speech "Thoughts on contemporary needs of our national economy" (1860) read by some of the ideas of Marx's "Critique of Political Economy", but the main it is to offer a broad program Babst bourgeois transformation of all aspects of economic life in Russia. It included:
1. On the development of domestic economic thought in Russia had populism. The most outstanding representatives of the revolutionary direction (P.L. Lavrov, M.A. Bakunin, P.N. Tkachev) is not specifically involved in the problems of the economy, they criticized capitalism as a whole as a socio-economic formation that does not meet human needs. They noted the uniqueness and originality of the historical development of Russia, which will allow it to go to socialism, bypassing capitalism through the peasant community. Theory of the Russian peasant socialism developed and maintained the first Russian political emigrants A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev. In the article "Russian Germans and German Russian" Herzen formulated characteristic, in his view, socialist principle in the peasant community: the right of everyone to the ground; communal ownership of land; secular governance. Herzen deprived the Senate of property rights, owns catch phrase of labor in the life of our people: "We do not have a prayer, we have labor: labor is our prayer." 06060301
2. Of undoubted interest on this account the views of the liberal populist N.K. Mikhailovsky (1842-1904), a prominent critic, journalist and sociologist, which liberals and Marxists, the Slavophiles and Westernizers declared enemy of economic progress of the country. Talented polemicist, Mikhailovsky agreed that the credit industry, exploitation of natural forces in the country - all these things are in themselves beautiful; but they give unfortunate results if directed not just for the good of the working classes, and for the good of the whole pyramid; the same loan, if it is not directed special ways for the good of the people, give only a means to strip the people who does not have in their hands the means of production. Peasant money is helping someone else, but not to the peasants. 06060302
3. From the pages of magazines edited them "Notes of the Fatherland", "Russian wealth" over the bourgeois-liberal reforms Mikhailovsky spoke more trenchant: our bourgeoisie never had a reason to be liberal, for the simple reason that under the rule of bureaucracy (read: lack of freedom) its life was good. True freedom, in his opinion, it is a combination of financial and properly organized useful industry need railways, true self-government, legislative strengthening land community. 06060303
4. At the heart of community life populists put the village of "harmonious human" (an expression of the writer G.I. Uspensky), which was raised by the power of hundreds of years of natural conditions of labor in the direction of Agronomy: the power of the earth, manure, wind, rain, harvest, crop failure; this work, a continuous and endless, covering the whole person, the transfer to it all the diversity, beauty, polysyllabic, harmony and poetry of the world, destroyed in man (or so it seemed to Uspensky) the slightest opportunity to own use of power. 06060304
1. The highest achievement of Russian and world economic culture in the middle of the XIX. recognized the economic theory of NG Chernyshevsky, the only original thinker among many simple compilers. The objectives and the subject of economics workers Chernyshevsky attributed formulated his definition of wealth (as opposed to Adam Smith and John. S. Mill), the essence of which was reduced to a state measure positive human needs, not the superiority of his property over others. This definition coincides with the notion of well-being, the scale of which is given human nature. Chernyshevsky argued that the bourgeois conception of wealth as a justification for inequality of wealth, is contrary to reason and should be replaced by other relations corresponding to the demands of reason. The laws of capitalism are not eternal, ulcers in that system are inevitable, but because economics relates to medicine Chernyshevsky economic life. Elements of economic life are organized by the man himself, but it is subject to the power of historical circumstances. Success in terms of production workers belonging to land and other means of production Chernyshevsky reduces to a product of two factors: the degree of perfection of production operations and quality of work (or as an employee who performs these operations). 06060401
2. To Chernyshevsky belong aphorisms related to the condemnation of the feudal labor in industry: "The machine does not stand beside her slavery; it can not withstand the heavy hand of its carelessness; a free man is needed." Interested thinker and new incentives to work: "The motivation for conscientious work is not extraneous supervision, which can not keep up with the worker, and in his calculations." The reasons of historical progress Chernyshevsky found in the fact that humans have an innate ability to work and hunting; These qualities of human nature gradually arrange the best public order and welfare. Non-capitalist path of evolution the scientist has seen in the development of forms of independent small peasant economy, advocated the coexistence of two sectors: communal or collective and private or capitalist; he recognized that Russia would go the way of the West (and soon we may be involved in the full scope of operation of the law of competition), not blindly copying Western European experience of development, seeking to bypass the sharp contradictions of capitalism. 06060402
3. Enumerating the major economic work N.G. Chernyshevsky: "On earth as elements of wealth" (1854); "On land ownership" (1857); "The Slavophiles and the question of the community" (1857); "Essays on the Political Economy of JS Mill "(1860-1861) and many others. 06060403
4. The first Russian translation of the works of George. S. Mill, published in England in 1848, appeared in 1860 in the annex to the most popular magazines in Russia "Contemporary", which is actually edited by Chernyshevsky. His translation of the scientist and economist escorted additions and notes, equal in volume treatise Mill (about 100 printed sheets). Gendarmes guarding Chernyshevsky since his arrest in 1862 expressed their opinion about this work: 06060404
5. "Translation of Political Economy of the English by scientist James. S. Mill contains a whole system of teaching, whereX Chernyshevsky was preaching for a special deal with the property... - Displays the criminal nature of economic works Chernyshevsky was accompanied by the phrase: - The author works mainly for its economic co-socialist content clearly proved that he took steps to overthrow the existing order in the Russian government. " 06060405
1. In "Contemporary" published his economic article also young publicist V.A. Milutin (1826-1855), in which the author, recognizing the historical merits of Adam Smith, nevertheless came to the conclusion that in the free development of industrial production ahead of population means, that is, effective demand, creates clutter markets, business failures, poverty and disaster workers. V.A. Milutin opposed to labor being relegated as a mere productive factor, defended the close relationship (planned) between all branches of the national industry, its balance and solidarity. Large landed property Milutin considered as major obstacle to the use of advanced productive forces of Russia. Because of that notorious Grech and Bulgarin considered his articles inconsistent and fantastic suggestions of socialism. 06060501
2. European scientists also influenced the minds of the citizens of Russia of 60-ies., Became J. S. Sismondi (1773-1842), the enemy of Adam Smith, whose opinion on economic science critic was driving to chrematistics, that is, to the discovery of ways to increase wealth without touching sufficiently the question of how to use them to achieve common prosperity and happiness. Practical system stemming from the teachings of the orthodox school, striving not only to ensuring that the rich even richer, but also to ensure that the poor do even more dependent and poor. Sismondi wanted to draw public attention to the issue of the distribution of wealth, to the question in the second half of the XIX century And not only in Russia, became one of the most controversial. Sismondi did not recommend any socialist organization, knowing that he could not specify the drugs, by which justice could get exercise in practice. But Chernyshevsky and a number of other economists in Russia joined the views of Sismondi that the state as a force should take care not only about maintaining order and peace, but also about the distribution of the benefits of social connections and the latest progress possible for all classes of society. 06060502
3. Another opponent of Adam Smith was the German economist F. Liszt (1798-1846). His main work entitled "Perspectives on the system of political economy" was published in the "Journal of Agriculture» (№10, 1856). Protesting against the cosmopolitan modern political economy, Liszt gave priority to the principles of the national economy and insisted on the idea that each nation to achieve its goals with its own funds, which are in accordance with the surrounding circumstances and the degree of development of the economic culture of the people. Simple fight of private interests will never create a well-organized state of labor "Freiheit ist keine Losung" (one freedom does not solve the problem). Born a new axiom for the economic restructuring of the company must be universal, not only material but also spiritual, moral renewal. The industrial revolution, which took place in Europe and Russia, was not an isolated fact, it was part of a special art of living, changing the world, human behavior and economic culture, which means from now on be directed to send to achieve a single and a great goal - the preservation and development of mankind. 06060503
4. In support of this objective, with particular fury rose N.G. Chernyshevsky: 06060504
5. "No matter how great gravity, which reduces war material capital of nations, but the losses it causes moral capital} 7-educated people, should be regarded as even more significant. The basis of any improvement, an essential condition for the emergence and growth of the nations love to work and saving habits, ought to be called the rule of law, confidence in the strength of the rule of law, the predominance of law over brute force. War is a refutation of this order and these beliefs. It destroys any savings, it kills the love of work, takes away the right to enjoy the fruits of labor and economy" [59; 175]. 06060505
6. Chernyshevsky separated from the parent capital, being buildings, vehicles, signs of credit and money, moral capital, merging with the body of the worker; this major national capital has a stock of moral strength and intellectual development of the people. As an advocate of community use of land in Russia, Chernyshevsky objected in newspappers the opponents, who argued that villager, accustomed to obey in their community affairs, to wean from independence, loses the person loses initiative and enterprise. On the contrary, disunity weakens and demoralizes people, the alliance also strengthens their moral and intellectual forces, encouraging their will. These are the conclusions of history and moral sciences. The Russian people, stressed Chernyshevsky knew these truths in everyday experiences and expressed their sayings: one soldier does not make the army; one mind is good, but two is better; in humans also death in beautiful. 06060506
7. Protecting communal land tenure, N.G. Chernyshevsky put it under protection and patronage of the State, which plays as the main lever in all reform projects. The concept of the state as a factor of social progress Chernyshevsky, of course, did not connect with the autocratic bureaucratic state. The failure of the state in the 1861 reform Chernyshevsky primarily seen in the fact that they were made without the active participation of the community and the people. The state covers almost, telegraph, transportation, defense industry, as well as metallurgy, mining, oil production, and even agricultural production, with an average of 40% of the land belonged to the state, and in some provinces, this proportion reached 80-99%. 06060507
8. History of the people Chernyshevsky did not see only as the struggle of abstract principles of federalism and centralism as the need to maintain such expensive machinery as the Russian state, which should be disposed of only to modify also for new purposes. 06060508
9. Actually the capitalist type of factory continued to grow with a strong government support. The number of factories from 1850 to 1887 doubled and reached 21,098, and the annual volume of their production increased 6 times and was 990 million. Rubles. [60; 183]. 06060509
10. In the words of P.N. Miliukov exchange economy after the peasant reform could celebrate the final victory over the natural. Every year, Russia has strengthened at a new stage of economic life in which industrialism was necessary product of internal development. 06060510
1. The process of internal development reflects the history of Russian economic thought. The first post-reform composing this kind was the book N. Flerovsky (V.V. Bervi - 1829-1918) "The situation of the working class in Russia" (1869). The author boldly remarked: 06060601
2. "Our ancient bloodsuckers were not fools, they dissociated for themselves the best parts of Russia: province, just more famous by his industry and the fertility of its soil, - Vladimir, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Orel, Ryazan, Saratov, Simbirsk belong to the order in which all more landed estates; in each of them more than half the population lives on private land, and in Simbirsk even 82%. On the barren terrain of the northern ridges, in the provinces of Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Olonets and Perm in the sandy littoral plains there were almost no private lands, and these spaces are occupied by unfortunate Russian farmer in undisputed possession; And even here he is not left alone on rents." 06060602
3. Praised this book Marx, met it in the script and studied with it the Russian language: "This is - the first work in which the truth about the economic situation in Russia is reported, -wrote Marx. - The man is a strong enemy of so-called Russian optimism. I have never had a rainbow representations about communist Eldorado, but Flerovsky exceeds all expectations. Truly amazing and at least some measure of fracture is that such a thing could be printed in St. Petersburg" [59; 178]. 06060603
4. Note on Marx's communist Eldorado refers primarily to N.K. Mikhailovsky, which, according to Marx, was going to transform his "Capital", to a sketch of the origin of capitalism in Western Europe, whereas it was the historical-philosophical theory of the general course of world development, the theory of which fatally must obey all nations, whatever the historical conditions in which they are... Such an understanding of his activities Marx considered a disgrace for himself. 06060604
5. Under the working class Flerovsky understood both the workers as peasant, artisan and craftsman, in a word, all manual workers in Russia at that time. A supporter of the creation of partnerships between workers and employers, Flerovsky refers in his book to the Western reader: 06060605
6. "It is surprising that the socialists of Western Europe who beat like a fish on ice because of the issue of the working class, have failed to understand that highly unfair to the fact that it was the product of capital and labor, was the property of the capital. They tried and tried to reach his goal by workers' strikes, cause this work countless suffering and devastation, sometimes holding the whole country in a futile agitation. Not it be better to conduct business on the purity? Employees have on the course of doing the same effect as the capitalists... Revenues, factory, capital, it defined, known and equally so, and others. They receive a percentage in the risk premium, the employees - the rest." 06060606
7. Such people's capitalism Flerovsky represented with startling clarity of glance: 06060607
8. "If you talk about the contract between the employee and the capitalist, though based on the voluntary consent, it is nothing other than just a way of expression. The employee agrees to the terms of the capitalist so voluntarily, as Venice and Lombardy once voluntarily agreed to submit to the Austrian Empire. Submission of employee to capitalist conditions is the same phenomenon of nature as the subordination of the conquered people to their conquerors." Flerovsky believed that the relationship of workers and capitalists will be established on the basis of harmless consent only when the capitalists do not receive more than they should. 06060608
9. Born in the darkest era of Nicholas regime Flerovsky believed that government policies transformed the entire Russian people, from nobles and ending with a shepherd in the rogues and thieves, among all classes of society, the power of the fruit of mutual hatred and mutual contempt. Bureaucratic and rich thieves hated intelligent people for their willingness to be honest; they could not understand that an intelligent and honest man should despise them for uncleanness of their hands, and it resented their pride. Deal with them - in the opinion of the writer - was very unpleasant, they are certainly and in whatever was wanted all his associates do the same people as they are. 06060609
10. In 1868, a partnership was formed in Moscow, Russian capitalists who have expressed a desire to purchase from treasury Nikolaev railway. One of the businessmen, A.I. Koshelev, which entered the deputation, described the manners that prevailed at that time in Petersburg offices: 06060610
11. "Bribery, personal cash payments, ways to circumvent the law, and so on, arrived in St. Petersburg to the extreme. All can be achieved, and at the same time in the fair, the law can be refused. Immorality, dishonesty and senselessness of top management exceeded fraud and absurdities of provincial county officials" [65; 169-170]. 06060611
12. Corruption and bribery of senior administration formed the psychology and morality dealers of post-reform period. Minister of Finance, I.A. Vyshnegradskii (1831-1895) has said in a disarmming manner: "Treasury is there to steal from it. Who does not rob it?" [65; 171]. Tools of his time (fraud, bribery, bribes) were forced to be used by the best of local entrepreneurs. 06060612
13. Alexander II Flerovsky considered selfish liberator, who took over allotments from the peasants much more than he was paying to the nobles: the king is the liberator of the serfs and robber of peasants - that's his name! 06060613
1. Flerovsky agreed with the definition of the Zemstvo as an institution for tinning hospital utensils, according to M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in one of his satires. Although they are in the bodies of territorial self-government, established in 1864, embodied the desire for autonomy of social forces in Russia. Local self-government arose on the basis of free elections in three ranks of voters. Zemstvo authorities enjoyed considerable autonomy from the state. Only the governor could veto the resolution of zemstvo assemblies ruled the Senate. 06060701
2. Public meetings, freedom of speech in zemstvo assembly led many to hope that in Russia begins the era of constitutional life based on self-government. Although the Zemstvo was instructed to deal only with economic issues and solving social problems, social welfare field, already in 1865 the St. Petersburg provincial zemstvo assembly unanimously decided to appeal to the government with a request for the establishment of the Central Provincial Assembly, that is with the Duuma. 06060702
3. March 11, 1881, Alexander II approved the project of the Preparatory Commission for those that prepared the liberation laws February 19, 1861 Two hours later, he fell victim to terror. 06060703
4. A week later, the new emperor Alexander III (1845-1894) under the influence of K.P. Pobedonostev (1827-1907) review and essentially condemns all emerged under his father liberal system of absolutism: the district council, the city we do, a new trial and a free press. 06060704
5. As for the economy, in 1891, Russia of Alexander III begins construction of Great Siberian way, also was adopted patronizing-protectionist tariff, then Customs Laws. Fines for discipline credited to a special fund and spent only on the needs of the workers. Workers were punished for truancy, but the breeder could fall into crime for the delay in salary. Alexander III special law limited the working hours. In 1908, the working day was lengthened again while reducing prices by 15%. 06060705
1. As some of the results will witness that, despite wars and crises, the pace of development of Russian industry in the XIX century was striking. From 1801 to 1881 the number of plants (excluding small and cottage industry) increased from 2423 to 31173 (13 times), and the number of workers from 95 to 771 thousand people (8 times). Acceleration also everywhere was mechanization. If in 1860 the cost of mechanical equipment in the Russian industry was estimated at 100 million rub., then ten years later, already it was 350 million. [73; 10]. 06070001
1. The industrial revolution after the abolition of serfdom began to take capitalist forms. By the end of the XIX century the absolute volume of industrial production in Russia became the fifth largest among the industrial powers of the world [65; 53]. The main role was played by the textile manufacturing, which accounts for half of the cost of industrial products. Behind it was the food industry (flour, sugar refinery, dairy, distilling and tobacco production), and then metal mining industry as the rail production and transport engineering. 06070101
2. Even crafts passed the stage of simple commodity production to the cooperative, and the division of labor between the craftsmen arose manufactory (factory) production. Development of industrial capitalism corresponded to form joint-stock enterprises, joint-occurrence of which (as well as cooperatives, associations, corporations), one of the fans of FM Dostoevsky refers to the union of fraternal hatred, not based on freedom, but a sense of fear for their existence on the desire to get profit, benefit, utility, albeit at the expense of others. 06070102
3. New forms of free enterprise are viewed with suspicion. 06070103
4. "What is liberty? was a question given by F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) after a trip to Paris and London, and answered: - Freedom. What freedom? The same freedom for all to do anything within the law. When you can do anything you want? When you have a million. Does the freedom of every one cost a million? No. What is man without the million? A man without a million is not one that does anything, but one with which to do anything." Writer firmly enlightened that "the money would not buy everything... People even more money. People no matter what the market does not buy and no money, because they are not sold and not bought, but only are born during centuries." 06070104
5. Nevertheless, in the mid 70s. Dostoevsky's "Diary of a Writer" observes: 06070105
6. "People started some unheard of perversion of ideas with the widespread worship of materialism." Materialism Russian classic called people to the worship of money, before the power of gold bag. "More disgusting than this - thought the writer - there can be no other. And it is worn and penetrates everything little by little. But the people are not protected from such ideas, no education, not the slightest preaching of other opposing ideas" [59; 187]. 06070106
7. The state of human brotherhood of only one economic benefits of the writer did not like: the circle Petrashevists ended not only to the prison, but also to the square with a bag on head, that is was hanged. 06070107
1. Around the same time was observed phenomena and characters completely other. 06070201
2. "My desire to constantly strive for the prosperity of the domestic good in all respects" - dictates to son Timothy Prokhorov (? - 1852), the hereditary owner of one of the largest manufactures of Russia, a patriot of his people, having created at the factory on Treh gor (three hills) not only craft and technological schools, but also Russia's first national theater. "It must advance children of merchants accustomed to constant labor and to the need for moderation in life, desire top become rich, but without any greed and envy, to indifference to the loss of benefits, but not to indifference loss of conscience and good name, and well to any loss of curiosity relating to morality and to the point, to the permanence of its rank. If not learning, we Russians in competition with foreign merchants turn out impossible "- he wrote from Hamburg brothers. Brothers T.V. Prokhorov opened a factory for the first time in Moscow with hospital for workers and almshouse for the elderly. Actually controlling the entire production Y.V. Prokhorov was convinced: "Now we, Russians, by all forces should aim for education, by no means rejecting the science; otherwise we will trample in the mud. Russian mind is nothing inferior to foreign, it would only need to be educated." On the outdoor of the retail store "Russian goods" owned by Jacob at Kuznetsky Most in Moscow was used the motto: "Produce good and sell more cheaply, quickly get rich." His successor James V. wished to see "fundamental hosts with strong, broad knowledge" [73; 84-86]. 06070202
1. Millions of Russian citizens were covered by the founding fever 60-70th. - Hasty organization of joint stock companies, concessions for the construction of railways, foreign capital, etc. History of private railway economy of the country dates back to the Tsarskoye Selo line (1837), the Warsaw-Vienna (1838) and Nikolaev railway (1842), built on the basis of private enterprise. 06070201
2. Only in 1861-73 was founded more than fifty railway companies with a capital of 700 mln. rubles, plus 15 steamship companies. The system of credits, loans and allowances in respect of these societies complemented by the information that entrepreneurs had almost complete freedom in the construction and operation of the lines. 06070202
3. The rapid pace of railway construction played an important role in the development of the internal market. In 1861 Russia had about 1,500 km of railways, and by 1871 their length increased to 10,000 km in the next decade 12,000 km were built. Annually from 1200 to 3000 km of railways were built; by 1901 Russian railway network exceeded 56 thousand miles (by this time, remember, the Treasury held a significant part of the great Siberian road Perm-Kotlas line, roads in Central Asia and the Caucasus). Siberian Railway construction has made a tremendous impression on the international community; The value of this event is comparable with the discovery of America and the building of the Suez Canal. Highest command in 1869 all government orders on the railways continue to be filled within the state, regardless of any difficulties. Already during the construction of Trans-Siberian Railway Ministry of Finance issued annually up to 2000 permits licenses for mineral exploration. 06070203
4. But the scale of Russia is not commensurate with the rapid development of the Russian railway network: for thousands of square kilometers area we had 10 km railway in USA had 37 km, France - 87 km, England - 117, Belgium - 245 km. 06070204
5. Construction of railways stimulated the development of related industries, it had a multiplier effect, spreading the new economic relations in the country. Railways increased mobility of the population, the growth of cities and the urban population, provided a marked increase in the domestic market. Despite the significant costs of construction, they gave profit. Net revenue per mile of the Russian railway network is, for example, in 1896, 4.6% of all investments in Germany - 6% in the UK - 3.9% in the US - 3.5%. 06070205
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| 47. The medal is engraved in the memory built in Tsarskoye Selo Railway (1837) |
6. Rapid railway construction in 1860-70s required rapid increase in the production of rails. Briton John Hughes (1814-1889) received from the government concession to build rail iron plant in the Donbass, in which in 1869 near the metallurgical factories making 1.5 million tons of rails per year, there was a city Yuzivka, now Donetsk. By 1900, in the south of Russia were 25 steel industry enterprises, which produced iron, steel and iron twice as much as the Ural [65; 66]. 06070207
7. After government ban to buy locomotives abroad it began encouraging individuals that produced domestic locomotives. Among the first entrepreneur volunteers turned out to Sergei Maltsev (1801-1893), grandson of VV Malcev (Maltsev), the founder of glass and crystal production under Peter I. Malcev Empire, located at the junction of three provinces: Kaluga, Bryansk and Oryol, occupied 2,000 square miles, has worked in the production of more than one hundred thousand people. S.I. Maltsev, who led them setting up economic zone for fifty years, even under serfdom was introduced the eight-hour day on heavy industries, building houses for workers in the three or four rooms with garden plots, which were sold in installments, let free the forest. In Maltsev industrial district operated 22 plants, one of which began producing agricultural machinery. 06070208
8. Addressing the shareholders of the new plant, SI Maltsev admitted: "Preparation of agricultural machinery meets dangerous competitors in the face of foreigners in Russia have rich stores of duty-free imported excellent machines. Ours is new, requires labor and loss, but I am sure that we achieve persistence that Russian cars will serve the development of Russian agriculture. For Malcev plants it was no longer news to carry donations for introduction into our country of new businesses and improvements. "S.I. Maltsev was patriotic as the people around him, hurt, apparently, not only for pocket. For shareholders it seemed "wild that people came and manage hosted in Russian industry" [73; 128-129]. 06070209
9. Russian scientist PP Melnikov (1804-1880), a member of the design and construction of the railway Petersburg-Moscow wrote entrepreneur SI Maltsev: "The history of almost all Russian industries connected with the name of Sergei Ivanovich Maltsev... Whether it's in Paris, he would have erected a monument to posterity." 06070210
10. Railway carriages from the beginning of the 70s produces Sormovsky Factory, founded in 1849. In the same period there is Joint Stock Company Bryansk for rail iron, ironworks and mechanical plant (P.I. Gubonin Contractors and V.F. Golubev). 06070211
11. With the build-up of the engine - and car gaining momentum built in 1801 Putilov factory in St. Petersburg, almost completely destroyed by a flood in 1824 and languishing on the verge of bankruptcy. Received at the beginning of 1868 an order from the treasury for 2,800,000 tons of rails for 1 rub.80 cop. for pud, eighteen days after the plant started riding the rails. In 1870, the first All-Russian Congress of Industrialists Putilov pavilion of the rails, arranged in the form of sunlight and struck the roof of the pavilion, was recognized as one of the best depicting the dawn of the liberation of Russia from foreign dependence. The then owner of the factory NI Putilov suddenly all dedicated his speech to the Russian workers, recalling how, during the Turkish War of the plant organized the construction of steam gunboats and corvettes. "For three months yesterday unemployed spinners built three dozen steamers and they are the same, the former spinners, machinists working on them. Is not this fact proving the ability of the Russian people to the plant and does not it make the page of history of the Russian factory doing?" Recalled the host and start railiron shop "clicked cry in the provinces - people to go free by rail and on postage. A few days later came a half thousand people. A Schedule was done: who should be laminators who casters who welders who go to the hammer, to whom the press, someone to scissors. After 18 days, rails started rolling five thousand pounds per day. Gentlemen! Does not this fact prove the ability of the Russian people to the factory case?.. ". I proposed a toast "to the health of the Russian working people in general and in particular to the young men, smoky workers of the plant" [73; 144-146]. 06070212
12. Since 1863 has its origin in Kolomna Plant (AE owners brothers and GE Struve, Moscow merchant AI Lessing), which became the largest supplier of locomotives for the Russian railways. By the end of the XIX century production of locomotives in 8 plants, cars - 13, for 45% of all engineering products in Russia [65; 70]. Erected also was Locomotive Works. If up to 1869 in Russia were built only 217 locomotives, and from abroad imported over one thousand, then 40 years later, after the founding of private factories in Kolomna, Lyudinovo, St. Petersburg and elsewhere, in 1908 Russian factories had built 565 locomotives. This was an annual capacity of domestic locomotive enterprises. Domestic locomotive and railcar satisfy the needs of more than 3/4 of the railways in the rolling stock. 06070213
1. Was corrected also poverty of roads: By 1904, the total length in Russia rose to 16.5 thousand miles; it was one third of the large island roads of England and 1/20 of the French highways. 06070301
2. As for river navigation, the establishment of it in Russia is conmnected with the activity in St. Petersburg of Charles Byrd, who in 1815 put a Watt engine on a simple Tikhvinka and after some experiments opemned shipping on Neva river. In 1847, on all the rivers of Volga basin swam a total of 12 ships, and 60 years later the number was 2,099, including about a dozen passenger ships of the so-called American system. And about 9,000 river vessels on Russian rivers to the beginning of XX century were sailing: barges, barges of type Berlin, Gusyany, Belyany, and so on. The beginning of XX century was marked by the appearance on the Volga ships, i.e. ships with internal combustion engines (on the initiative of the well-known firm of Nobel brothers). A similar pattern occurred in the basins of Neva, Northern Dvina, Dnieper, Ob, Amur basins and numerous rivers of the empire - from the Pechora and Mezen to the Amu Darya and Kury. 06070302
1. Post-reform industrial revolution seized many sectors of the economy, not related to railway construction, - textiles, sugar, paper, glass, lights, Foro pottery. World wide recognition of the Russian porcelain MS Kuznetsova, Nikolsky Crystal of N.A. Bakhmetev, French perfume industry of Muscovite Henry Brocard, tobacco company I.V. Gusev, breweries I.E. Lipsky, St. Petersburg Society elektroequipments P.I. Ratner. World famous become the largest in Europe Nizhny Novgorod Fair (pocket Russia) headed by the Chairman of the Committee for Fairs S.T. Morozov (1862-1905), "Association of Peter Arsentevich Smirnov" and its products - vodka with the label "Smirnoff". In Europe enters production of the Crimean winery L.S. Golitsyn the New World. At European trade exhibitions high awards and medals are awarded refinery products and sand-sugar factories, P.I. Haritonenko, automatic mill Frenkel Kelbera, Russian silk A.I. Nissen, cloaks and hoods of G.G. Adelkhanov, chemical cleaners of St. Petersburg merchant F.F. Subbotin - you name it. 06070401
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| 48. I.D. Sytin |
1. About three dozen medals and diplomas were listed in the above list of domestic publisher and educator Ivan Dmitrievich Sytin (1851-1934), a native of the village peasants economic Gnezdikov Soligalichesky County. His way to future entrepreneur began twelve years old with patience and diligence in a bookshop of merchant Sharapov near Ilyinskikh Gates in Moscow. Here the young kommersant got the idea to create a network of peddlers. Ofen, vendors hawking products. Peasants took splints and other beautiful pictures. Another example of entrepreneurial ingenuity of the young owner of lithography. "In the day of announcement of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877, I ran to the Kuznetsk bridge - wrote I.D. Sytin - bought a map of Bessarabia and Romania and ordered the master overnight copy of the map, where our troops crossed the Prut. At five o'clock in the morning the map was prepared and put into the car with the caption: "For readers of the newspaper. Allowance". Lithography pictures were snapped. Merchants traded not on the price, but on quality. Items were not enough" [73; 282]. 06070501
2. With the name, I.D. Sytin was associated production of quality reproductions of paintings by famous Russian artists, series of books for the people of the best works of writers of Russia and foreign classics, public calendars, edition of the magazine "Around the World", the newspaper "Russian word" popular war encyclopedia. Already in 1914, publishers Sytina produced over a quarter of the book production in Russia. The turnover of the Association reached 12 million rubles. 06070502
1. But one of the first places of domestic production in the post-reform Russia was the oil refining industry. Oil refining for the first time in Russia was begun in the middle of the XVIII century in the north, then, after a break, since 1823, oil production and its simultaneous distillation began in the North Caucasus, on Mozdok steppes, on a private refinery. Such mercy was received by the Nobel family: the extraction and refining of kerosene and heavy oil as well as the sales of all products of the oil industry. Monopoly of Nobel allowed it to set high prices and getting huge profits. 06070601
2. Against such a monopoly arose D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907), on the economic covenants which in Russian economic culture should be driven apart, interrupting the story of oil. 06070602
3. "Why have I not stayed in my academic life," wondered D.I. Mendeleev on the threshold of the XX century, being at that time the organizer and first director of the Chamber of Weights and Measures. Earlier for a quarter-century the scientist lectured in chemistry at St. Petersburg University and was fired in 1890 for the transfer of their student's petition to the Minister Delyanov demanding, among other things, to dismiss the then Chancellor of the University. 06070603
4. The author of the periodic table has enjoyed worldwide scientific recognition: doctor of leading European universities and honorary member of many scientific institutions in the world. Except of the Russian Academy of Sciences in his native St. Petersburg, five minutes walk from the university apartments of Dmitri Ivanovich. He was voted down in November 1880 and more in this preeminent academic institution in Russia he was not seen. 06070604
5. Then, before the vote Mendeleev shorthand dictated his speech, which had the name of "What kind of Academy we need?", which explicitly states that the highest scientific forum in Russia gathered too many foreigners, alien to Russia or Russian who do not know the Fatherland and not caring its fate nor that of the people. Soon Petersburg journal "Rumor", which in the 30s was edited by V.G. Belinsky, blamed "sweet little family of different Schmidt, Schmandt, Schulz and Miller" caught up in that time, the role of judges in the great chemist. 06070605
6. During the life of D.I. Mendeleyev his Collected Works were not published. 24 volumes of scientific monographs of the scientist were published during a long time, from 1934 to 1954.; each volume in an edition of 3000 copies. Works the written by the prophetic pen, remain to this day a rarity. Nearly half of Mendeleev's works are addressed, in his words, "To the knowledge of Russia" - the very first article "On the modern development of some chemical industries, as applied to Russia, and on the World Expo in 1867," he wrote in Paris, to the last book "Treasured thoughts" facing the agitated minds of the youth, which included extensive chapters on public education, the population of Russia, foreign trade, factories, industry and, of course, about the causes and motives of the Russian-Japanese war. I ended this book then unpublished article "World view," in which the scientist acting in science more than half a century, tried to remind people, seeking freedom, often act against it, advised not to believe the last word of science, and not close the mouth of any contradiction biting refereeing techniques. 06070606
7. For half a century, DI Mendeleev wrote about 200 printed sheets labors economic content, is nominated, along with economics professor II Yanzhul (1846-1914), the first series of widely read authors on this issue. Proceedings of the periodic (only list the names of capital: "Explanatory rate", "The doctrine of the industry", "To the knowledge of Russia", "Letters of plants", "inner thoughts") are of considerable interest for the history of Russian economic culture, as well as the source with scrupulous study of the history of the Russian economy and the leading world powers late XIX - early XX centuries. 06070607
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| 49. D.I. Mendeleev at the chemical laboratory |
8. DI Mendeleev, by his own admission, played the role of the index finger in the development of the domestic oil industry. One of the pioneers in the Caucasus oil industry affairs, he organized the first oil wells on leased lands back in 1859 and built a kerosene plant in Baku, was a well-known, public-spirited entrepreneur V.A. Kokorev (1817-1889). In an effort to increase profitability zavododeystviya, Kokorev and invited An- Sharon in 1863, Mendeleev, who studied the production, made a number of recommendations and suggestions: 06070609
9. "1) Arrange from oil wells to the plant and from the plant to the sea, at a distance of 30 miles, special pipes for oil as the factory, and on ships, in which kerosene and oil was to come in bulk, ie, in special tanks of ships; 2) to establish the Transport via the Caspian Sea to the Volga pass on the schooner with special tanks, and pass from the Volga to Nizhny by barges, where the oil should be placed in bulk and 3) to arrange around Nizhny large plant for processing crude oil into various products" [65; 169]. 06070610
10. Proposed pipelines, barges instead of wineskins for transportation of petroleum and its products, scientist popularized the Baku oil fields, raise capital, not marayas own contact with them. D.I. Mendeleev consistently rejected suggestions the oil to go into business for fear that profit sharing can cause a doubt in the disinterestedness of his public activity and thereby prevent pure patriotic desire to promote industrial development of the country. 06070611
11. For three decades - from 1873 to 1902. - Baku oil production increased by 160 times, and in the North American United Shtatah- only 70 times. Russian kerosene began to flow along the Volga all in large quantities, gradually displacing the domestic market with American kerosene, which was then expelled and the European market. 06070612
12. With the invention of the diesel engine kerosene was used not only for lighting. With the development of teplohodostroeniya increased demand for oil, which dramatically heighten competition for sources of oil and oil products market. In pre-revolutionary Russian championship in the oil market was owned by the cartels of Nobels and the Rothschilds. 06070613
13. Independence of D.I. Mendeleyev allowed him to directly determine the cause of the backwardness of the Urals, the industry is in the hands of the few, quite nazhivshihsya figures, but special attention of the government. The scientist proposed to do away with possessional possession of the Urals, preserved from the time of Catherine the Great. It's not the depletion of fuel resources of the Urals, but the existing property relations, - convincingly argued Mendeleev, because the industry is primarily a consequence of complete clarity of ownership. He also took part in the improvement of Donbass coal mining. 06070614
14. In his economic works D.I. Mendeleev setting out coherent system of all-round development of the productive forces of Russia, which had the aim of turning it into a powerful state, economically and politically independent, with advanced industry and agriculture. 06070615
15. The industrial boom of the late XIX century was a unique phenomenon in the economic history of post-reform Russia. 14464 of industrial enterprises, which are located in Russia in 1890, 40% were born during the 80s. Its industrial production had doubled, the rate of growth in this period, in Russia was ahead of all Western countries except America. 06070616
1. Unfortunately, Russia surpassed Europe also in such indicators as the mortality rate: 25 per 1,000 people in Europe, and 35 in Russia. In addition, the outcome of major capital per capita in 1900 was calculated as follows: UK - 300 rubles, Germany - 90 rubles, Russia - no more than 8 rubles. 06070701
2. These figures presented S.Y. Witte (1849-1915), future minister of finance in the "Summary of lectures on the national and government economy, read to his Imperial Highness Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich in the years 1900-1902." And that the low standard of living was due to the fact that Russia later entered the Western European states path of development of their productive forces, and therefore the level of the consumption of its social classes, especially the common people, is much lower than in the civilized countries of the West. 06070702
3. Consumption in the Russian peasant economy - he taught his younger brother Nicholas impresses with its small size. Statistical research in Voronezh province showed that the average income of households was 67 rublwa and led to the conclusion that in a family of eight souls, in which there are 2 full employees, consumption per capita reaches 53 cash rub. 05 cop. per year. Of this amount, 26 rubles 78 kopecks (50.5%) represent the value of the items produced by the peasant economy, and 26 rubles 27 kopecks (49.5%) are non-cash items. The rest a total of more than 14 rubles went to the needs of the economy (land rent, purchase of livestock feed), and only 12 rubles were spent on personal needs. 06070703
4. Of these 12 rubles. -
5. In an equally microscopic doses are expressed also various other expenses in connection with which S.Y. Witte said: small development needs of our people due to the fact that they only recently were liberated from serfdom. 06070705
6. Once at the head of the Ministry of Finance of Russia in 1892, SY Witte admitted: 06070706
7. "Little did I know of the core of Russia, and especially the peasantry. I was born in the Caucasus and worked in the south and the west. But by becoming a mechanic of a complex machine, called the finance of the Russian Empire, I had to be a fool not realizing that the car will not go without fuel. The fuel is - economic condition of Russia, as well as a major part of the population - it is the peasants, it was necessary to look into this area.". 06070707
8. As Minister of Finance, Witte strengthened policy patronizing local entrepreneurs, introduced the gold currency, increased indirect taxes, increased foreign debt to 1.5 billion Rubles. All this is true as the fact that the share of income from the drinking population on public murals of indirect taxes in 1892, Witte brought to 80%. The thought of the chairman of the Committee of Ministers was: "As soon as society gets richer, accustomed to independence, the habit of obedience disappears. It begins not only wish to get power, but also acquires the ability to it; Constitution requires then the entire means of being accustomed to freedom and social discipline of the people" [60; 191-192]. 06070708
9. S.Y. Witte tried to outline some of the measures to promote economic enterprise and autonomous initiative embodied in the character of the people. These measures were limited to:
10. S.Y. Witte studied the works of the German economist Friedrich Liszt in the script, and considered himself a follower of him. In the book "The National Economy and Friedrich List" (1889), Witte argued that a civilized power of Russia should be based on strong national economy, based on - the development of domestic industry, intensive agriculture and wide, both internal and external trade. In his role as Minister of Finance from 1892 Witte focused on strong national bourgeoisie, strongly encouraged its activities with the help of protective state measures restricting, in particular, state-owned property in the industry, and developing private-enterprise. During the ten years of financial management practices Witte-doubled length of railway lines, transformed and streamlined taxes, customs, established forces transformed Farmers Bank, destroyed mutual responsibility in the village, reduced indemnity payments to farmers. 06070710
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| 50. S.Y. Witte |
11. The state of the finances of the country has an impact in the situation of foreign trade, which was particularly unfavorable for Russia in the 80's. When the US ousted the British market with Russian bread. The European market was thrown cheap American grain with the construction of railways and improvement of ocean transport. World prices for grain fell and rose only in the end of the century. It is interesting that among the most cherished thoughts of summer of 1903 D.I. Mendeleev attributed the consideration that exporting my Russian bread till now reduces rather than increases the "welfare of the population." Per capita Russia consumes about 20 pud per year, less than the average bread consumption in Western Europe, 26-27 pud. per inhabitant. Since the removal of all bread was in the beginning of the XX century, only about 3 pud. per capita, that "if all the remaining amount exported from Russia of grain were used for consumption and processing of residents in our country, concluded Mendeleev, yet the norm of our food need would not be quite sufficient for the present." 06070712
12. Overall 80-90th. XIX century marked for the Russian crisis features in the history of the railway business. Period foundation and free competition in rail transport was replaced by a state monopoly in the sphere of tariff regulation, purchase the majority of private roads in the coffers of the treasury and the rule of construction of new railways [34; 169]. 06070713
1. In the last quarter of the XIX century a feature of the transition from the stage of capitalism of free competition becomes monopolized banking, education, financial and industrial groups, their international dimension, the formation of a similar Western European senior business layer, the so-called financial oligarchy. As a result of the customs war with Germany in the 80s. financial capital of Russia switched to relations with France. 06070801
2. Monetary reform of S.Y. Witte was preceded by the accumulation of gold by his predecessors N.H. Bunge, I.A. Vyshnegradsky who created under Alexander III the necessary reserve for the introduction of the gold standard, as well as the placement of Russian loans abroad, their conversion from Germany to France and the achievement of the trade surplus. All activities of the monetary reform 1895-1897 were carried out exclusively by the state under the leadership of S.Y. Witte. Evaluation of them was ambiguous: from narrow national point of view to the position number of the Guest M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, believes that reform of Witte held them more in the interests of foreign capital than domestic. 06070802
3. Russia in 1907, after many wars and efforts to reach its suburbs, except Western, in the public sense of natural boundaries, i.e. their rivers in the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and later protected shafts of Ararat, the Hindu Kush, the Altai. Only in the West, Russia had not reached then the Carpathian shaft, which seemed also to its imperial power, primordial, natural. It would have possible only by using military force. 06070803
4. By the beginning of World War I (mid-1914), foreign capital controlled almost 90% of the production of platinum, about 80% of the production of ferrous metals, oil, coal, 70% of the production of pig iron. By the beginning of XX century Russia, like the United States, was one of the world's largest debtors. The amount of foreign capital invested in the US by 1914, was nearly double of the amount of foreign investments in Russia [65; 103-104]. But in the years of the First World War, the United States, importing capital, and becoming a major exporter of it, turning the country of the debtor to the creditor. The democratic nature of the social system the United States, in contrast to the autocratic Russian bureaucratic allowed to maintain a dynamic economy and a widespread, efficient private enterprise. 06070804
5. An important factor in economic growth and development of market relations in Russia in the second half of XIX - early XX centuries was the organization of credit. In 1860 was established the State Bank, which received the right to grant loans to revitalize the commercial and industrial revolutions. In 1863 for the same purpose the government allowed to establish private banks. In 1874 already worked 31 joint-stock banks, 180 city banks and a number of mutual loan societies. Furthermore, in the 70s there were small credit institutions, the so-called savings and loan associations, the number of which had already in 1874 reached more than seven hundred. 06070805
6. Operations of banks were divided, according to the Italian accounting system adopted for passive (receiving funds for which the bank pays interest) and active (the allocation of resources among customers, financing of commercial and industrial revolution). The difference between the percentage levied on active and paid on liabilities is, as it is known, the profit of banks. 06070806
7. Trade turnover of domestic trade increased for every five years by a third, and in 1900 amounted to 11-12 billion Rubles. Trade to the end of the century occupied by about 1 million 600 thousand residents of Russia: for each person employed in the trade, on average, accounted for 78 people, slightly more than in Germany. 06070807
8. Group of the big bourgeoisie at the beginning of the XX century was small, but highly professional and educated in European way. It included 4,5 to 5 th. people and 1500 stock company heads and large privately owned companies, function in various sectors of the economy [65; 116]. In Russia, there were about 150 business associations: semigovernemental committees of Commerce and Manufactures (15), merchant council (3), Exchange Committees (85), congresses of Industry and Commerce (27). Russian businessmen of new generation (A.I. Guchkov, A.I. Konovalov, S.T. Morozov, P.P. Riabushinsky et al.), Insisted on the reform of the political system along the principles of constitutionalism, demanded the convocation of Parliament with the provision of legal rights of the monarch veto in the usual form of Western countries, the abolition of administrative and bureaucratic arbitrariness. 06070808
9. Explosive element of the social situation at the turn of the century was the polarization of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The government had consistently kept for a system of fines and 10-12-hour working day, citing, for example, the abundance of festivals in Russia (98 days a year to 267 working days), have an adverse impact on the economic life of the nation, reducing its earnings and accustoming people to laziness, drunkenness. In comparison, the number of holidays in Hungary (53 312 working days), the Dutch (57 308), Germans (60 305), the French (63 to 302), etc. 06070809
10. The government overlooked the obvious fact that foreign loans had turned to the Russian foreign debt, become an instrument by which siphoned abroad the country's savings. Monthly payments paid to foreign owners of Russian public funds for 1881- 1913 years was more than 5 billion Rub., which is more than one and a half times more than the increase of the external public debt of Russia during the same time [65; 102]. 06070810
11. Following the resignation of S.Y. Witte as finance minister was VN Kokovtsov (1853-1949), during whose time the gold reserves of Russia in 1909-1914 increased almost 2-fold and amounted to more than $ 2 billion rubles. State-owned production, unlike most extensive private activities in all areas of industry, Kokovtsov considered fatal, because "there was not a state-owned enterprise, is not lived on subsidies at the expense of taxpayers" [73; 27]. 06070811
1. Russia still did not have a law on the private ownership of land. New (since 1906) Chairman of the Council of Ministers, PA Stolypin (1862-1911) the decision of the peasant question, making this class a free and strong, considered it the task is not so much a social or government as national. Stolypin, a fierce supporter of freedom of peasant labor, freedom of initiative, thought: 06070901
2. "As to the ground is not attached work of the highest quality, that is, free labor, not forced, our land will not be able to withstand the competition from the land of our neighbors." And further: "As long as the poor peasant has no personal land property he is in the grip force of the community, he is a slave, and no written law does give him the benefit of civil liberty" [73; 30]. 06070902
3. According to the law of 9.XI.1906 and adopted by the State Duma, the peasants were allowed to leave the community with the ground to guide the development of agriculture in Russia by the bourgeois, in the farming way. Allocated plots of land became known as bran, and if the peasant endured there and his estate - farms. 06070903
4. In November 1907 at the meeting of the 3rd State Duma PA Stolypin outlined his views on the revival of agriculture: 06070904
5. "It is necessary to enable capable, hard-working farmer, i.e., salt of the Russian earth, be freed from the shackles in which he is currently located. We have to give him an opportunity to strengthen for a fruit of his labor and give him an integral property. Let this be a common property where the community has not yet outlived, let it be hereditary. To this end, the government finds it necessary to make allowance smallholder farmers and give them on favorable terms from the land reserve required an amount of land. Due to the fact that the peasantry is strongly empoverished, the state should assume the difference in interest paid on sheets issued by it, and the percentage that the peasantry could afford" [73; 29]. 06070905
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| 51. P.A. Stolypin |
6. The proposed path of the head of the Council of Ministers of the empire called it modest but true, in contrast to the path of radicalism, the liberation from the historical past of Russia, from the national cultural traditions. On the capitalist apparatus of village Stolypin averted to be needed 50 years. Himself a reformer he did not have even a tenth of that period: September 1, 1911, he was killed. But after his death, on the eve of the First World War, farms supplying agricultural products to the market 80% of marketable grain; three-quarters of grain was given by the economy of kulaks and landlords, i.e. capitalist farms; multimillion community of peasantry brings into bins of Russia only one-quarter of the grain wealth. 06070907
7. Russia exported at that time only 6-8% of its production. But the export of flax in 1913 was 54%, and butter - 76% of their production. Export fraction of wheat, rye, oats, barley, eggs ranged from 3 to 17% [65; 52]. 06070908
8. Social objective of the reform of P.A. Stolypin was not achieved. By 1916, the community allocated only about a quarter of householders (2.5m.). The area created in the years of reform farms and cuts amounted to 11% of the total allotment land [65; 51]. The overwhelming mass of the population remained tenacious tradition of collectivism and mutual assistance, community psychology, which was stimulated by the systematic practice of help and Brigadier execution barshchina work on the master's fields. In this case farmer never disappeared and the natural desire for personal, private method of farming did not exist. The class of peasant proprietors was too weak. Community traditions of Russian peasants made him more receptive to socialist ideas compared to Western farmers. 06070909
1. Nevertheless, Russian entrepreneurs at its congress in 1912, developed the seven principles of doing business in Russia:
2. These conditions are nothing else but the basics of organizational culture for the efficient operation of any enterprise. 06071009
1. The essence of modern business is reflected in its principles:
2. Corporate culture is manifested through the understanding of the values, which are derived from the norms and rules of conduct, develops creative environment of forces affecting a particular behavior. Entrepreneurial culture can be figuratively compared with the main course of a river; regardless of whether there is on the surface of the waves, stormy or calm, the main current does not change [73; 35]. 07000102
3. The diversity of cultures is due to the variety of business industries and spheres of human activity. But every work executed by a person must satisfy four conditions:
1. Contrary to popular belief thepropensity of our fellow citizens in recent years to a purely mercantile values, the results of a survey conducted by the magazine "Reader's Digest" (October 1998, s. 25-32) show that the Russians are not only interested in money. Important factors are also contacts (45%) and the pursuit of activities beneficial to society (39 %). 07000201
2. The hierarchy of motives of labor activity in men is virtually identical to the one of women, women only slightly higher rating flexible working time and work being close to their place of residence. For respondents with higher education professional development is almost as important as income (respectively 62% and 66%), and the possibility of self-realization is not less important than contacts with people. Overall rating of labor values in a poll of "Reader's Digest" is as follows:
3. Russian man has long been criticized for a lack of entrepreneurship, especially in comparison with the Anglo-Saxons. In connection with this unexpected result of the survey was that 13% of Russian citizens who answered the American magazine, chose self-employment, that is preferred to do what they see fit, without reporting to the authorities, and getting paid for the work performed at irregular working bottom. In the USA, where there is the spirit of enterprise, self-employed make up 8.6% of the working population. 07000203
4. On the question of which factors are the most important basis for a successful career, sociologists of "Reader's Digest" received the following answers:
5. Our fellow citizens (in the survey participated 3312 readers living in large (38%), medium and small (33%) of the towns and villages (29%), located in the territory covering 11 time zones of Russia) realize that you must not only acquire knowledge and professional experience, but also learn how to sell them. 07000205
6. Device to work on acquaintance consider relevant 31%, two-thirds of respondents believe that adapt to the changed conditions of employment in the most professional conditions of employment in the most professional experience helps. 07000206
7. The responses received destroyed still prevailing stereotypes, that our compatriots avoid responsibility at work, are not interested in the results of their work and rely primarily on outside help. The majority of respondents, on the conclusion of "Reader's Digest", adapted to the realities of the free market in matters of work and career, were self-confident, adventurous and ready to take responsibility for their own well-being. 07000207
8. For developing entrepreneurship in our country important factors are:
1. Describing the entrepreneurial function in the current economy of the leading countries of the world, we note that in American society conducting own business has traditionally been considered a very prestigious occupation, although 30% of new businesses disappear in the first year of their existence, 50% in the first two years, 60% in the first five years. 07000301
2. Key sectors of the German economy are occupied by private business; in Germany since 1860, operates a national business association "Allgerman Union of Industrialists." Large and growing group of entrepreneurs is formed by representatives of free creative professionals (architects, teachers, musicians, doctors, lawyers, economic and financial advisers, and so on). 07000302
3. In the Italian industry small companies, based on personal and family ownership and management and a very limited administrative staff comprise about 85% of all. They are characterized by a high degree of activity obtained by reinvesting of profits, lower capital costs per employee and per unit of manufactured products, as well as a small external debt, which distinguishes small companies from large enterprises. 07000303
4. Small business of France performs half the country's exports. The state at all levels - national, regional and local - is helping to create new businesses. 07000304
5. In the economic structure of the Scandinavian countries dominate numerous, usually small in size enterprises of manufacturing units that focus on the issue of mass production for the domestic market, although these countries have focused on external rather than the national market, strong economic integration. In each case, the form of enterprise is determiisd according to which form of business ownership better serve material progress and well-being of people. 07000305
6. In Japan, the business sector at the level of small and medium enterprises with the number from 3 to 300 people employs more than 80% of workers, and about a quarter of the working population are independent entrepreneurs and their families. Contractor is widely used system of work organization. Characteristic of Japanese industry is a group of entrepreneurs who often is the whole team. 07000306
7. As you can see, in most cultures have developed their own mechanisms of entrepreneurial motivation and creative type of managerial behavior. Economic culture that distinguishes Europe, as the main criterion for evaluating achievements, the priority of the behavior puts the weight on excess of income over expenditure, commercial success, which governs all the rest. But the tendency of European mercantile spirit is found in the United States and Japan, in Turkey and Taiwan, Malaysia and Colombia. 07000307
8. As for Russian entrepreneurs, the current practice of their activity has produced several indisputable tips:
9. With regard to the calendar of the past XX century, the most useful inventions of entrepreneurs are:
10. And, unfortunately, all. 07000310
1. The fate of the Russian idea, no doubt, reflects the fate and domestic entrepreneurship. 08000101
2. Individualism emerges from the herd, it is not the fruit of the highest culture. Autonomous, self-employment and diversity of individuals are inevitable for the development of civilization. Collegiality, organic unity of general and single are obtained by living in unity with truth (S.N. Bulgakov). Religious truth is individual and Cathedral, and Catholic thinker Romano Guardi neither predicts in the near future to be overcome by individualism and personality in full solidarity with business and neighbors in work. The content of the individual activities are imbued with spiritual power and both the independent work of thought and a community with other individuals in the entrepreneurial work that are largely determined and depend on the temperament of the people. 08000102
3. Modern Russian writer T. Zulfikarov argues that Russia needs a second baptism, as the world is coming neopagan worshippers of money, sensual passion, comfort, celebration of popular culture, music of the hell. 08000103
4. This concern is not unfounded, and confirmed by another national feature: on trade benefits and self-interest can not be established peace. For the real foundation of the world (as opposed to Kant's dream) Russian philosopher N.F. Fedorov (1828-1903) offered to resurrect all the dead. Thisewould be no civilization of fight, but of sympathy. Even more so, if we recognize after P.A. Ilyin (1882-1954), that Russian culture is a child of historical catastrophes, and the Russian idea a premonition of disaster and general idea of universal salvation. 08000104
5. What issues were handling the creators of the Russian idea? Russia - family of nations or a prison of nations? Europe or Asia? Eurasia or Aziopa? East of Xerxes or of Christ? West - a West or West Hell? Who is right: the Slavophiles, who loved Russia as a mother, or Westerners who loved her as a child? SP Shevyrev (1806-1864) concluded that the truth of the ancient Rus is eternal, and in eternal truth there is no difference between the XIX and XV centuries; change its form of expression, the truth remains the same one. This is not surprising for contemporaries. They knew from the sermon of Shevyrev that Hegel's philosophy borrowed from the "Instructions" Vladimir Monomakh . 08000105
6. Does the Russian idea become the cultural reality of our time? The idea of great Russia as it were in the air. It was a great Russia, and not small, mono-ethnic Russia, we are required to recreate - believe today Patriots-statists, calling for unity to recreate - believe today Patriots-statists, calling for unity above all of Orthodox Slavs, and then those Muslims and Buddhists, who can not imagine their life outside of Russia, and for which the slogan of Great Russia and Holy Russia are close enough and significant. Although there was still no new Sergius of Radonezh and the passwords are not yet said. 08000106
7. The most objective judgment about his people submitted poems G. Gorbovsky:
With hangover - sad eyes.
In speech - abuse and whim.
Bad people, unbridled,
Slob – but ours.
Soul - density of taiga,
In blood - animal howl.
Sick people, exhausted, unshaven
... But it is him.
Europe or Asia?
Himself - the people!
Nobody's outrageous.
But takes it on the heart. 08000107
8. Taking on the heart, the term "Russian idea" came from the pen of F.M. Dostoevsky in the beginning of 1861 in the announcement of a subscription to the magazine "Time": "We know that the fence is not even now the Chinese wall of mankind. We anticipate that the nature of our future activities should be extremely common to all mankind, that the Russian idea, maybe there will be a synthesis of all the ideas that with such persistence, with such courage Europe is developing in some of their nationality. "World responsiveness - a distinctive feature in the spiritual image of the Russian people. 08000108
9. Russian philosopher and poet VS Solovyov (1853 -1900) at the Paris Salon emphasized the absence of the Russian idea of something exceptional and particularist (from Lat. partcularis - particle, private); it supposedly represents only a new aspect of the Christian idea: not to act against other nations, but with them and for them. This view is justified by the lack of competitiveness of the Russian economy due to the significant (by European standards) costs for construction, resource development, energy, transport and wages. 08000109
10. In the brotherhood of nations, the search for universal salvation saw the Christian aspect of the Russian idea also N.A. Berdyaev (1874-1948), author of a lapidary formula: all are responsible for all. 08000110
11. Another important aspect in the history of domestic business is the fate of democratic reforms, although, according to the authoritative judgment of people, not without humor, democracy compromised itself in ancient times. I refer to the M.M. Zoshchenko (1895-1958): "Five hundred Athenian merchants and sailors sentenced Socrates to death for the wrong philosophical convictions." 08000111
12. PA Florensky (1882-1937): "Political freedom of the masses in countries with representative government is a deception and self-deception of the masses, but self-deception is dangerous distraction away from useful activities and engage in politicking. It must be firmly said that politics is a speciality as inaccessible to the masses, as medicine or mathematics, and therefore just as dangerous in the hands of fools, like poison or explosives. It follows a respective output of the representation of how the democratic principle also is harmful, not allowing anyone to meet at the same time relaxes the whole. No government, if it does not want to collapse, not actually is based on a majority decision in the most important matters but makes its own adjustments; which means that in essence it does not recognize the representation, but uses it as a means to cover up its actions" ["Lit. Study", M .: 1991, № 3, p. 97]. 08000112
13. His treatise "Anticipated polity in the future" Florensky wrote in the Lubyanka, awaiting sentence. The future of Russia (Union) PA Florensky saw as a single centralized state led by a man of prophetic abilities having high intuition of culture. 08000113
14. I.A. Ilyin considered remarkable that the introduction of democracy in the upcoming Russian insist, first, ignorant and deceitful aliens, and secondly, former Russian citizens seeking expansion and now ruined Russia. In fact, "democracy" is not easily administered and easily builded together mode. On the contrary - it is difficult. Democracy presupposes historical skills acquired by the people as a result of long experience and struggle, it involves people in the culture of the rule of law, freedom and sense of justice; it requires human judgment and political power of the living sense of responsibility. Otherwise, presciently warned I.A. Ilyin, all end corruption, turmoil and ugly expansion of the state. In the name of seemingly enlightened doctrine. 08000114
15. Among Russian Orthodox philosophers was nor rare the belief that society can be democratic alth at authoritarian regime in the case of weakening or even the disappearance of social barriers between different groups or classes. 08000115
16. Based on the above contradictions of Russian national consciousness, one can imagine that domestic entrepreneurs have yet to become a full figure and socially responsible. According to a Hungarian political scientist, worse than socialism can only be the system which comes to replace it [64; 181]. 08000116
17. Take a look at the recent experience. 08000117
18. During Brezhnev's rule (1964-1982) as the erosion of the regime began to appear and deepen economic and legal niches for alternative economic activities outside the state planning system. Main protoentrepreneurial flows manifested in the protoentrepreneurial, individuals inside and outside the state service sector, in large-scale shadow production, in the seasonal construction crews, shabashniks and cooperatives, Komsomol youth centers of creativity, quickly transforming into intermediary businesses. 08000118
19. Not by chance among the primary sources of business ownership in the Russian Federation, as the most significant are named:
20. Reliable data on the use of these sources for the organization of business structures available, but expert estimates last years loss of the state is determined by the specified channel at the level of 15-20% of national income [64; 57]. 08000120
21. In our nation, fortunately, vocation and destiny of man in the world, the concept of the inviolability of the person will inevitably be accompanied by the duty and the right to work, care for the provision of their lives. Living with their work, people will not take away someone else's, and acquire the means for his own moral and financial independence from foreign tyranny. 08000121
22. The current farmer in Miass Chelyabinsk region Ivan Germanovich Artemyev (he and his wife own five children and seven receptions, both of the Old Believers, and that means - these Orthodox people, persistent, patient, generous souls) profess the following principle: a real Russian man must be able to feed off the ground yourself and those who depend on him. And protect them in case of danger. That is what the Russian people is, first and foremost, whacultivator corn farmer. Warrior and comrate. Single-rooted words. As in the old days. 08000122
23. A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) admitted that he believes in the individual and sees salvation in individuals: "They play a discreet role in society, they do not dominate, but their work is visible. Whatever it was, the science moves forward. Public awareness grows, moral issues are beginning to acquire a restless character, and it's all done in addition to attorneys, engineers and intellectuals in general, and in spite of everything" [31; 396]. 08000123
24. Case in man. He - no lamp in the wind. 08000124
25. Culture includes not only professionalism in work, but also love to work. Man realizes himself as a person in work and culture. 08000125
26. The main problem remains the economic culture, first of all - work culture. 08000126
27. N.V. Gogol in one of the dying prayer recalled: 08000127
28. "Work - a holy cause. When you do a job, say to yourselves, "Lord, help!" And every time you say, "Lord, have mercy." Do hack spade or ax blow, saying, "Lord, make me worthy to be in heaven with the righteous." When does the job, try to be so righteous in thought, as if you were in the church, that from you no one heard pejorative to the mutual love righteousing of the work: if the work were a holy cause. Then this work will save your soul. Such as was the work here - such you will earn yourself the kingdom of heaven there." 08000128
29. "No wonder the world thinks of us, Russian, as people still young, fresh. - The opinion of another Russian genius D.I. Mendeleev. - We are young and still fresh - in the industrial sense. Knowledge of Russia in its natural conditions and knowledge of the Russian people in their abilities to every type of human activity - do not but convince me of the fact that the upcoming Russian industrial conquest must create an unprecedented flowering of Russian forces" [60; 194]. 08000129
30. This unprecedented prosperity is still ahead. 08000130
31. As long as the entrepreneurial race is not dying away.
1997-2001 St. Petersburg 08000131