Marshall-Principles-ajk$10.43#
1,286,286,eco,eng,20200118,20200209,2,Alfred Marshall: Principles of Economics
ama,
eng,
Contents 
4,2,Introduction Peter Groenewegen 
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Eighth Edition 
6,i,shed light on the intentions
297,h,Finally, Cournot and Johann Heinrich von Thünen are thanked for drawing Marshall’s attention to the importance of the margin (and of marginalist analysis), especially in defining a stable equilibrium as a balance between an increment in demand and an increment in cost of production.
358,h,and it is held that the Laws of Economics are statements of tendencies expressed in the indicative mood, and not ethical precepts in the imperative.
400,h,there is one Fundamental Idea running through all their frames, so the general theory of the equilibrium of demand and supply is a Fundamental Idea running through the frames of all the various parts of the central problem of Distribution and Exchange.
408,h,There is not in real life a clear line of division between things that are and are not Capital, or that are and are not Necessaries, or again between labour that is and is not Productive.
419,h,our observations of nature, in the moral as in the physical world, relate not so much to aggregate quantities, as to increments of quantities,
8,1,BOOK I PRELIMINARY SURVEY 535
8,2,CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 535
8,3,I, I, 1. § 1. POLITICAL ECONOMY or ECONOMICS 536
8,h,is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisites of wellbeing.
Contents Introduction Peter Groenewegen 
Preface to the First Edition Preface to the Eighth Edition 
8,1,Book I Preliminary Survey
8,2,1 Introduction 
8,v,Economics is a study of wealth and a part of the study of man. Man’s character formed by his daily work.
8,v,Poverty causes degradation.
8,v,May we not outgrow the belief that poverty is necessary?
9,v,Causes of the tardy growth of economic science.
9,v,Changefulness of economic conditions.
10,v,The fundamental characteristic of modern industrial life is not competition, but self-reliance, independence, deliberate choice and forethought.
10,v,“Competition” implies too much as well as too little. Man is not more selfish than he was.
11,v,Man is not more dishonest than he was.
11,h,Dreams of a past GoldenAge are beautiful but misleading.
11,v,Modern competition is of two kinds, constructive and destructive.
12,v,Even constructive competition is less beneficent than ideal altruistic co-operation.
12,v,Economic Freedom.
12,v,Rough sketches of the growth of economic freedom and of economic science are transferred from this Book to Appendices A and B.
12,v,The growth of economic freedom.
13,v,The early roughness of economic freedom in England.
13,v,The growth of economic science.
14,2,2 The Substance of Economics 
14,v,The chief motives of business life can be measured indirectly in money.
14,v,Even common pleasures and pains can be compared only through the strength of the incentives which they supply to action, and this indirect comparison can be applied to all classes of desire.
15,v,Economics follows the practice of ordinary discourse.
15,v,The same price measures different satisfactions even to persons with equal incomes; but these differences may generally be neglected when we consider the average of large numbers of people.
16,v,The significance of a given price is greater for the poor than the rich.
16,v,But this is not important in comparing two groups composed of rich and poor in like proportions.
16,v,Increase of means sometimes a fair measure of real progress.
16,v,Action is largely ruled by habit. especially as regards business conduct.
17,v,The motives that lead to the pursuit of money may themselves be noble.
17,v,And there is no truth in the common opinion that economics regards man as absorbed in a selfish pursuit of wealth.
18,v,The desire for money does not exclude other influences; such as the pleasure afforded by the work itself and the instinet of power.
18,v,Economists have always reckoned for advantages of an occupation other than material gain; and they have allowed for class sympathies, and family affections.
19,v,Economists study the individual as a member of an industrial group; and measure the play of motives in demand and supply at first in simple cases, and afterwards in more complex cases.
19,v,They deal mainly with one side of man’s life, but it is always the life of a real man not of a fictitious being.
20,v,The claims of economics to be a science, are its power of appeal to definite external tests, and its internal homogeneity.
21,b,20200124,+13=21=4%
21,243 Economic Generalizations or Laws 
21,v,Economics uses both induction and deduction,
22,v,Analytical and historical schools are both needed and supplement each other.
22,v,Imagination acting on organized study of facts frames general statements; and some of these are selected for the title of “laws.”
22,v,Nearly all laws of science are statements of tendencies.
22,v,The exact laws of simple sciences.
23,v,The inexact laws of complex sciences.
23,v,The science of man is complex and its laws are inexact.
23,v,Definition of law social, and economic
23,v,Definition of normal economic action.
24,v,The term Normal implies harmony with whatever conditions happen to be under discussion.
24,v,Thus normal conditions may imply high wages or low wages; they may imply the presence or the absence of eager competition.
24,v,Normal action is not always right action.
25,v,All scientific doctrines tacitly or implicitly assume certain conditions and are in this sense hypothetical.
25,v,But in economics the implied conditions must be emphasized.
26,2,4 The Order and Aims of Economic Studies 
26,h,common sense, which is the ultimate arbiter in every practical problem.
26,v,Summary of chapters II and III .
27,v,Scientific inquiries are to be arranged with reference not to the practical aims which they subserve, but to the nature of the subjects with which they are concerned.
27,v,Questions investigated by the economist.
27,v,Practical issues which stimulate the inquiries of the English economist at the present time, though they do not lie wholly within the range of his science.
28,v,The dominant aim of economics in the present generation is to contribute to a solution of social problems.
29,v,The functions of perception, imagination and reason in economics.
29,h,The scientific student of history is hampered by his inability to experiment and even more by the absence of any objective standard to which his estimates of relative proportion can be referred.
29,v,An external standard of measurement to steady the judgment is in some measure attainable by the economist.
29,v,But his main reliance must be on disciplined imagination; and he needs active sympathy.
30,v,Caution is demanded by an increasing recognition of the limitation of our knowledge and the uncertain permanence of our present social ideals.
30,v,Popular misconceptions of the character of the founders of modern economics.
30,h,The fact is that nearly all the founders of modern economics were men of gentle and sympathetic temper, touched with the enthusiasm of humanity. They cared little for wealth for themselves; they cared much for its wide diffusion among the masses of the people. They opposed antisocial monopolies however powerful. In their several generations they supported the movement against the class legislation which denied to trade unions privileges that were open to associations of employers; or they worked for a remedy against the poison which the old Poor Law was instilling into the hearts and homes of the agricultural and other labourers; or they supported the factory acts, in spite of the strenuous opposition of some politicians and employers who claimed to speak in their name. They were without exception devoted to the doctrine that the well-being of the whole people should be the ultimate goal of all private effort and all public policy. But they were strong in courage and caution; they appeared cold, because they would not assume the responsibility of advocating rapid advances on untried paths, for the safety of which the only guarantees offered were the confident hopes of men whose imaginations were eager, but not steadied by knowledge nor disciplined by hard thought.
31,v,Biology has given new hopes as to the future of the human race.
31,v,But it is still true that short cuts are dangerous: progress must be cautious and tentative.
31,1,Book II Some Fundamental Notions 
31,2,1 Introductory 
32,v,Economics regards wealth as satisfying Wants and as the result of Efforts.
32,v,But it is best to make a preliminary study of wealth itself.
32,v,Principles of classification.
32,v,The difficulties of classifying things which are changing their characters and their uses.
33,v,In its use of terms economics must follow as closely as possible the practice of everyday life.
33,v,But that is not always consistent, definite.
33,v,It is necessary that notions should be clearly defined, but not that the use of terms should be rigid.
34,2,2 Wealth 
34,v,Wealth consists of desirable things or Goods.
35,v,Material goods.
35,v,External and internal goods.
35,v,Transferable and non-transferable goods.
35,v,Free goods
35,v,A person’s wealth is his stock of two classes of goods, material goods, and such immaterial external goods as are used to obtain material goods.
36,v,The two classes together constitute economic goods.
36,v,A broader use of the term wealth is sometimes required. Personal wealth.
36,v,A broad term to include all forms of private wealth.
36,v,But we still have to take account of the individual’s share of the common wealth.
36,v,Collective goods.
37,v,In a broad view of national wealth account must be taken of free goods and of the organization of society or the State.
37,v,Debts from one member of a nation to another may be omitted.
37,v,Cosmopolitan wealth.
37,v,The juridical basis of rights to wealth.
37,v,Value. Price is taken provisionally to represent general purchasing power.
40,2,3 Production, Consumption, Labour, Necessaries
40v,Man cannot produce matter, but only utilities inherent in matter.
40,v,The trader produces utilities.
40,v,Man can consume, as he can produce, only utilities.
40,v,Consumers’ and producers’ goods.
41,v,Nearly all labour is in some sense productive. But that labour is generally said to be specially productive which provides for the wants of the future rather than the present.
41,v,The work of domestic servants is not necessarily unproductive.
41,v,Provisional definition of productive.
41,v,Productive consumption.
41,v,Necessaries are things which meet wants that must be satisfied. But this account is ambiguous.
41,v,The term Necessaries is elliptical.
42,v,Necessaries for existence and for efficiency.
42,v,Account must be taken of the conditions of place and time and of the habits of living.
42,v,Necessaries.
42,v,Illustration. Necessaries of unskilled labour. There is waste when any one consumes less than is necessary. Conventional necessaries.
45,b,20200126,+24=45=4% 286
45,2,4 Income. Capital 
45,v,Income in its broad use.
45,v,Corresponding to money-income,
45,v,we have trade capital. Its most conspicuous elements.
45,v,Net income.
46,v,Provisional definition of net advantages.
46,v,Interest of capital.
46,v,Profits.
46,v,Earnings of management.
46,v,Rents and Quasirents.
47,v,Consumption capital.
47,v,Auxiliary or instrumental capital.
47,v,Circulating and fixed capital.
47,v,Transition to the social point of view of income.
48,v,In practical matters theoretical completeness may be purchased at too great a cost.
48,p,Adam Smith =said that a person’s capital is that part of his stock from which he expects to derive an income.
48,v,The correlation of income and capital.
48,v,Meaning in this treatise of the terms Capital and Land from the social point of view.
49,v,Elements of social income that are in danger of being counted twice or of being omitted.
49,v,National income is a better measure of general economic prosperity than national wealth.
50,v,Prospectiveness and productiveness control the demand for capital and the supply of it.
51,1,Book III On Wants and Their Satisfaction 
52,2,1 Introductory 
52,v,The relation in which the present Book stands to the remainder of the Volume.
52,v,Several causes are bringing into prominence the study of consumption.
52,v,The first cause.
52,v,The second cause.
53,v,The third cause.
53,2,2 Wants in Relation to Activities 
53,v,We will begin with a study of wants in relation to efforts.
53,v,The wants of the savage are few;
53,v,but civilization brings with it a desire for variety for its own sake.
53,v,Man’s capacity for food is limited,
53,v,but not his craving for distinction:
54,v,which is a chief source of the desire for costly dress.
54,v,House room.
54,v,Wants resulting from activities. Gradations of the desire for excellence.
55,v,In a healthy state new activities pioneer the way for new wants.
55,v,The theory of wants can claim no supremacy over the theory of efforts.
56,2,3 Gradations of Consumers’ Demand 
56,v,The consumers’ demand governs traders’ demand.
56v,Utility and Want are used as correlative terms, having no ethical or prudential connotations.
57,v,The law of satiable wants or diminishing utility. Total utility.
57,v,Marginal purchase. Marginal utility.
57,v,It is implied that the consumer’s character is unchanged.
57,v,Translation of the law into terms of price.
57,v,Marginal demand price.
58,v,The marginal utility of money is greater for the poor than the rich.
58,v,A more definite expression for the demand of an individual.
58,v,The meaning of the term increase of demand.
59,v,Transition to the demand of a group of persons, or market. The demand on the part of any individual for some things is discontinuous.
59,v,But the aggregate demand of many persons shows a fall of demand price for every increase in quantity.
59,v,The law of demand.
60v,The influence on demand of the growth of a rival commodity.
60,v,Relation of the following to the preceding chapter.
60,d,The term marginal utility (Grenz-nutz) =was first used in this connection by the Austrian Wieser. It has been adopted by Prof. Wicksteed. It corresponds to the term Final used by Jevons, to whom Wieser makes his acknowledgments in the Preface (p. xxiii, of the English edition). His list of anticipators of his doctrine is headed by Gossen, 1854.
63,2,4 The Elasticity of Wants 
63,v,Definition of elasticity of demand.
63,v,The general law of variation of the elasticity of demand, and its consequent responsiveness to changes of price.
64,v,Illustrations drawn from the demand for particular commodities.
65,v,The demand for necessaries.
65,v,Commodities some part of the consumption of which is necessary.
65,v,Influence of sensibility and acquired tastes and distastes.
65,v,Influence of variety of uses.
65,v,Inelastic demand.
66,v,Difficulties of the statistical study; The element of Time.
66,v,Changes in the purchasing power of money, whether permanent, or temporary.
66,v,Gradual changes in habits and in the familiarity with new things and new ways of using them.
66,v,Illustrations.
67,v,Some demands can be more easily postponed than others.
67,v,Imperfections of statistics.
67,v,Increase of dealers’ stocks mistaken for increase of consumption.
67,v,Changes of quality.
67,v,Inductive study of laws of demand is difficult; but traders could further it much by analysing their own accounts.
68,v,Consumption by the poor of cheap things may suggest the probable variations in its consumption by the rich if it became very dear.
68,v,Another method is to collect budgets of individuals in different classes.
72,2,5 Choice between Different Uses of the Same Thing. Immediate and Deferred Uses 
73,v,The distribution of a person’s means between the gratification of different wants.
73,v,But a person may have too much of one thing for all uses, and too little of another.
73,v,Barter is a partial remedy.
73,v,Money can be distributed so as to have equal marginal utilities in each use.
73,v,Illustrations.
73,v,A chief use of domestic accounts.
74,v,The balancing of future benefits against present.
74,v,Future benefits are “discounted,” at different rates.
74,v,Desire for lasting sources of enjoyment and for ownership.
74,v,But we cannot really estimate the quantity of a future benefit.
74,v,An artificial measure of the rate of discount of future benefits.
75,v,Future pleasures expected from the ownership of durable commodities.
76,2,6 Value and Utility
76,v,Price and Utility.
76,v,Consumer’s surplus is part of the benefit a man derives from his environment or conjuncture.
77,v,Consumer’s surplus in relation to the demand of an individual.
77,v,Demand of a market.
78,v,This analysis aims only at giving giving definite expression to familiar notions.
78,v,In regard to different people allowance may have to be made where necessary for differences of sensibility and for differences of wealth: but it is seldom needed in considering large groups of people.
79,v,It is seldom necessary to take account of changes in the purchaser’s command of money.
79,v,We can seldom obtain a complete list of demand prices: nor do we often need them.
79,v,Elements of collective wealth are apt to be overlooked.
79,v,So-called consumers’ associations belong to the subject of Production.
80,v,We are here concerned with large incomes rather than large possessions.
80,v,Bernoulli’s suggestion.
80,v,The edge of enjoyment is blunted by familiarity.
80v,The value of leisure and rest.
80v,The excellence of a moderate income obtained by moderate work.
80,v,Expenditure for the sake of display. The superior nobility of the collective over the private use of wealth.
81,v,The tasteful purchaser educates the producer. We thus approach the fringe of broad inquiries, which must be deferred.
85,1,Book IV The Agents of Production, Land, Labour, Capital and Organization 
85,2,1 Introductory 
85,v,The agents of production may be classed under three heads, but for some purposes under two.
85,v,Man both the end and an agent of production.
85,v,Provisional antithesis of demand and supply, ordinary labour being selected for illustration.
86,v,The discommodities of labour are various, as are its motives.
86,v,Though much work is pleasurable, yet on certain suppositions the willingness to do it is governed by the price to be got for it. 
87,v,Supply price.
87,v,Forecast of the difficulty of this problem in real life.
87,b,20200128:+42=87=30% 286
88,2,2 The Fertility of Land 
88,v,The notion that land is a free gift of nature while the produce of land is due to man’s work is a loose one: but there is a truth underlying it.
88,v,Conditions of fertility.
89,v,Chemical conditions of fertility.
89,v,Man’s power of altering the character of the soil.
89,v,Original and artificial properties of land.
90,v,The original qualities count for more and the artificial for less in some cases than in others.
90,v,In any case the extra return to additional capital and labour diminishes sooner or later.
90,v,The return is here measured by the quantity of the produce, not by its value.
90,2,3 The Fertility of Land, continued. The Tendency to Diminishing Return 
91,v,Provisional statement of the tendency to diminishing return.
91,v,Land may be undercultivated, and then extra capital and labour will give an increasing return until a maximum rate has been reached, after which it will diminish again.
91,v,Were it otherwise every farmer would save most of his rent by applying all his capital and labour to a small part of his land.,
92,v,Improved methods may enable more capital and labour to be profitably applied.
92,v,Final statement of the tendency to diminishing return.
92,v,A dose of capital and labour.
93,v,The marginal dose is not necessarily the last in time.
93,v,Surplus produce.
93,v,This description of surplus produce is not a theory of rent.
93,v,Ricardo confined his attention to the circumstances of an old country.
93,v,The elasticity of nature’s return to capital and labour varies with soil and crops.
93,v,The relative fertility of two fields may change with circumstances.
94,v,Early settlers often rightly avoid the land which an English farmer would be apt to select.
94,v,Fertility is not absolute but relative to place and time.
95,v,Other causes of change in the relative values of different pieces of land.
95,v,Poorer soils rise in relative value as the pressure of population increases.
95,v,There is no absolute standard of good cultivation.
95,v,Ricardo’s wording of the law was inaccurate.
96,v,Ricardo said that the richest lands were cultivated first; this is true in the sense in which he meant it: but it is apt to be misunderstood, as it was by Carey.
96,v,But Carey has shown that Ricardo underrated the indirect advantages which a dense population offers to agriculture.
96,v,The value of fresh air, light, water, and beautiful scenery.
97,v,The fertility of fisheries.
97,v,A mine does not give a diminishing return in the same sense as a farm does.
97,v,The elasticity of the notions of diminishing return and rent foreshadowed.
98,4,NOTE ON THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURN.
98,v,The elasticity of the notion of diminishing return further considered.
98,v,A diminishing return results generally from an inappropriate apportionment of appliances for production.
98,v,But the national agriculture of a densely peopled country is dominated by the fixity of the total stock of one of the chief appliances.
99,v,Difficulty of measuring off a dose of labour and capital, and of reducing various produce to a common unit.
99,v,Different methods of book. keeping may the some thing as capital or produce; but each must be consistent with itself.
104,2,4 The Growth of Population 
104,v,Population and production.
104,v,The growth of numbers among animals is governed by present conditions; among men it is affected by traditions of the past and forecasts of the future.
105,v,The problems of population are older than civilization.
105,v,The doctrines of recent economists. The Physiocrats.
105,h,Adam Smith said but little on the question of population, for indeed he wrote at one of the culminating points of the prosperity of the English working classes; but what he does say is wise and well balanced and modern in tone. Accepting the physiocratic doctrine as his basis, he corrected it by insisting that the necessaries of life are not a fixed and determined quantity, but have varied much from place to place and time to time; and may vary more. 
105,v,Adam Smith.
105,v,Malthus.
106,v,His argument has three stages. The first.
106,v,The second.
107,v,Natural Increase.
107,v,Marriage affected by the climate, and the difficulty of supporting a family.
107,v,Middle classes marry late and unskilled labourers early.
107,v,Hindrances to early marriage in stationary rural districts. 
108,v,The birth-rate is often low among peasant proprietors, but not among American farmers.
108,v,General conclusion
108,v,Population in England.
108,v,The Middle Ages.
109,v,Settlement laws. Slow growth of population and rise in the standard of living in the first half of the eighteenth century; changes in the second half. Since the reform of the poor laws the growth of population has been fairly steady.
109,v,In the earlier part of the century the marriage-rate varied with the goodness of the harvest. Later on the influence of commercial fluctuations predominated.
110,v,Scotland. Ireland.
117,2,5 The Health and Strength of the Population 
117,v,The basis of industrial efficiency.
117,Physical exertion.
117,vrequires nervous as well as muscular strength.,
118,v,The influence of climate and race.
118,v,Scarcity that increases mortality;
118,v,Clothing, houseroom and firing.
118,v,Rest.
119,v,Hopefulness, freedom and change.
119,v,Influence of occupation.
119,v,Influence of town life.
120,v,Nature left to herself tends to weed out the weak, but man has interfered.
120,v,The State gains much from large families of healthy children.
120,v,The evils of infant mortality.
120,v,Practical conclusion.
121,v,The swaying to-and-fro of the forces of good and evil.
121,v,The former slightly preponderate.
124,2,6 Industrial Training 
124,v,The form which natural vigour takes depends largely on training.
124,v,The defects of our own age are apt to be overestimated.
125,v,Skilled and unskilled labour. Skill with which we are familiar we often do not recognize as skill.
125,v,Mere manual skill is losing importance relatively to general intelligence and vigour of character.
125,v,General and Specialised ability.
125,v,School.
126,v,Technical education.
126,v,The aims of English education reform.
126,v,Apprenticeship.
126,v,Inventions in England and other countries.
127,v,high education will increase the efficiency of the lower grades of industry indirectly rather than directly.
127,v,Much of the best natural ability in the nation is born among the working classes, and too often runs to waste now.
127,v,Education in art.
128,v,But in modern times design is almost limited to a narrow profession which is forced to pay court to fashion.
129,v,Education a national investment, and a duty of parents.
129,v,Mobility between grades and within grades.
129,v,Provisional conclusion.
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132,2,7 The Growth of Wealth
133,v,Forms of wealth among barbarous peoples.
133,v,Forms of wealth in early stages of civilization.
133,v,Until recently there was little use of expensive forms of auxiliary capital.
134,v,But in recent years they have increased very fast.
134,v,And they are likely to continue to increase.
134,v,And meanwhile there has been and probably will be a parallel increase in the power to accumulate.
135,v,Security as a condition of saving.
135,v,The growth of a money-economy gives new temptations to extravagance, but also a new certainty that savings will really provide what is wanted in the future.
135,v,And it has enabled people who have no faculty for business to reap the full fruits of saving.
136,v,A few people save for their own sakes: but the chief motive of saving is family affection.
136,v,The source of accumulation is surplus income; whether that derived from capital, or rent, the earnings of professional men, and of hired workers.
137,v,The public accumulations of democracies. Cooperation.
137,v,We must revert to the distribution of a commodity between present and deferred uses.
137,v,A person may save, though he prefers present gratifications to future, and he does not increase his means by waiting.
138,v,Some saving might therefore conceivably be made even if interest were negative; but it is equally true that some work would be done even if there were a penalty for it. We may therefore call interest the reward of waiting: not of abstinence.
139,v,The greater the rate of gain from present sacrifice the greater will often be the saving, but not always.
139,v,So the higher the rate of interest the greater the saving as a rale, but there are exceptions to the rule.
139,v,But in spite of exceptions a fall in the rate of interest tends to make saving less than it otherwise would be.
139,v,Provisional conclusion.
140,v,Estimates of nationa wealth are seldom direct: they are generally based on estimates of income.
140,v,The money value of land is increased by its scarcity.
143,2,8 Industrial Organization 
144,v,The doctrine that organization increases efficiency is old.
144,v,Biologists and economists have studied the influence which the struggle for survival exerts on organization.
144,v,Differentiation and Integration.
144,v,The law of struggle for survival requires to be carefully interpreted.
144,v,Its harshest features softened by the principle of heredity.
145,v,Influence of parental care on survival of the species.
145,v,In man self-sacrifice becomes deliberate and is the basis of the strength of the race.
146,v,The caste system was useful at the time, but not free from drawbacks.
146,v,The same is true of the relations between different industrial classes in the modern Western world.
146,v,Adam Smith’s moderation, the extravagance of some of his followers.
147,v,They paid too little attention to the conditions under which the faculties can best be developed.
147,v,Changes in industrial structure must wait on the development of man; and therefore must be either gradual or unstable.
148,2,9 Industrial Organization, continued. Division of Labour. The Influence of Machinery 
148,v,The course of inquiry in this and the three following chapters.
149,v,Practice makes perfect. Physiological explanation.
149,v,Knowledge and intellectual ability.
149,v,Change of activity often a form of relaxation.
149,v,In the higher grades of work extreme specialization does not always increase efficiency.
149,v,But it is easy to acquire a high manual skill in a narrow range of work.
150,v,The uniformity of many processes in the wood and metal trades.
150,v,The provinces of manual labour and machinery.
150,v,The division of labour in relation to the growth of machinery.
150,v,Machinery displaces purely manual skill; and thus diminishes some of the advantages of division of labour: but increases the scope for it.
151,v,Illustration from the history of the watchmaking trade. Complex machinery increases the demand for judgment and general intelligence; and in some cases weakens the barriers that divide different trades.
152,v,Illustration from the printing trade. Instance of the multiplication in demand for faculties of a high order caused by machinery. Machinery relieves the strain on human muscles.
153,v,Machinery takes over sooner or later all monotonous work in manufacture.
153,v,Illustration from the textile industries.
153,v,It thus prevents monotony of work from involving monotony of life.
153,v,The economic use of specialized skill and machinery requires that they should be fully occupied.
154,v,But the most economic use of man as an agent of production is wasteful if he is not himself developed by it.
154,v,External and internal economies.
157,2,10 Industrial Organization, continued. The Concentration of the Specialized Industries in Particular Localities 
157,v,Even in early stages of civilization the production of some light and valuable wares has been localized.
158,v,The various origins of localized industries; physical conditions; the patronage of courts; the deliberate invitation of rulers.
158,v,The industrial development of nations waits upon opportunities and upon character.
159,v,The advantages of localized industries; hereditary-skill; the growth of subsidiary trades; the use of highly specialized machinery; a local market for special skill.
159,v,Sometimes however a localized industry makes too extensive demands for one kind of labour.
159,v,Different industries in the same neighbourhood mitigate each other’s depressions.
160,v,Localization of shops.
160,v,The influence of improved means of communication on the geographical distribution of industries.
160,v,Illustration from the recent history of England.
160,v,The diminution of her agricultural population is less than at first sight appears.
161,v,Changes in the distribution of the agricultural population within the country.
161,v,Those set free from agriculture have gone not to manufactures but chiefly to industries in which there has been no great increase in the efficiency of labour.
161,v,Transition to the subject of the next chapter.
163,2,11 Industrial Organization, continued. Production on a Large Scale 
163,v,The typical industries for our present purpose are those engaged in manufacture.
163,v,The economy of material.
163,v,The advantages of a large factory as regards the use of specialized machinery.
164,v,Advantages with regard to the invention of improved machinery.
164,v,The small manufacturer cannot often afford to experiment.
164,v,But in some trades a factory of moderate size can have the best machinery.
164,v,Advantages of a large business, or of associated groups of businesses, in buying and selling.
165,v,Advantages of a large factory as regards specialized skill, the selection of leading men, etc.
165,v,The subdivision of the work of business management: advantages of the large manufacturer; those of the small manufacturer.
166,v,Rapid growth of firms in some trades which offer great economies to production on a large scale.
166,v,Where marketing is easy, the economies of production on a large scale are mostly open to firms of moderate Bize.
166,v,But in specialities marketing is difficult.
166,v,Causes which enable firms to rise quickly, often hasten their fall.
167,v,Advantages of large businesses of other kinds.
167,v,In retail trade they are on the increase owing to the growth of cash payments and the increasing variety of the goods in common demand.
167,v,The carrying trades.
168,v,Mines and quarries.
168,v,The case of agriculture is deferred.
169,b,20200201:+37=169=60% 286
170,2,12Industrial Organization, continued. Business Management 
170,v,Problems to be solved. and so do as a rule the learned professions now.
170,v,But there are exceptions even here.
171,v,In most businesses the services of a special class of undertakers intervene.
171,v,Illustration from housebuilding.
171,v,The chief risks of undertaking sometimes separated from detailed manage-ment in the building trades; in the textile trades; in house industries; in Sheffield trades; in shipping trades; and in the production of books, etc.
172,v,This plan has advantages; but is liable to abuse.
173,v,Several distinct functions are combined in one hand by the ideal manufacturer: the faculties required in him.
173,v,The supply of business ability may be discussed in connection with the forms of business management.
174,v,The son of a business man has a good start.
174,v,But business men do not form a caste, because their abilities and tastes are not always inherited; and after a time new blood must be brought in by some method.
174,v,The method of private partnership.
175,v,The method of joint-stock companies
175,v,The shareholders undertake the risks; the Directors control the Managers; who superintend the details.
175,v,Those who undertake the risks cannot always judge whether the business is well managed.
175,v,The system is rendered workable only by the modem growth of business morality.
176,v,Government undertakings.
176,v,The social perils of bureaucratic methods.
176,v,Trusts and cartels.
176,v,Cooperative association in its ideal form might avoid the chief dangers of joint-stock companies.
176,v,It has difficulties in the task of business management, but it may outgrow some of these.
177,v,Profit-Sharing.
177,v,Partial Cooperation.
177,v,Hopes for the future.
177,v,The rise of the working man is not hindered as much as at first sight appears, by his want of capital; for the loan-fund is increasing in volume and in eagerness for employment.
178,v,He is hindered much by the growing complexity of business.
178,v,But he may overcome these difficulties.
178,v,The rise may take two generations instead of one. But that is not an unmixed evil; if the danger of mere office work can be avoided.
179,v,An able business man speedily increases the capital at his command.
179,v,A man who has not great business ability-loses his capital the more rapidly the larger his business is.
179,v,These two forces tend to adjust the capital to the ability required to use it well.
180v,Business ability in command of capital has a fairly defined supply price in such a country as England.
180,v,Net and gross earnings of management.
181,2,13 Conclusion. Correlation of the Tendencies toIncreasing and to Diminishing Return 
181,v,The relation in which the later chapters of this Book stand to the earlier.
182,v,A summary of the later chapters of this Book.
182,v,Summary. Summary. Summary. 
183,v,Forecast of our study of the cost of production in a representative firm.
183,v,Laws of increasing return, and of constant return.
184,v,The straining of the tendencies towards increasing and diminishing return against one another.
184,v,Increasing Return is a relation of quantities.
184,v,A rapid growth of population is an evil under some conditions, but not under others.
185,v,The effects of a growth of numbers must be carefully distinguished from those of the growth of wealth by which it is generally accompanied.
185,1,Book V General Relations of Demand, Supply and Value 
185,2,1 Introductory. On Markets 
186,v,Scope of this Book.
186,v,Markets described only provisionally here.
186,2,2 Temporary Equilibrium of Demand and Supply
187,v,Definition of a market.
187,v,Boundaries of a market. Instances of very wide markets.
187,v,General conditions which affect the extent of the market for a thing. Suitability for grading and sampling.
187,v,Portability.
187,v,The conditions of highly organized markets illustrated by reference to stock exchanges.
188,v,The world market for the precious metals.
188,v,Putting aside cases of retail dealing, we pass to a market which seems to be narrowly confined, though even this is subject to indirect influences from great distances.
189,v,Limitations of market with regard to time affect the nature of the causes of which we have to take account.
190,2,3 Equilibrium of Normal Demand and Supply 
190,v,A simple instance of equilibrium between desire and effort.
190,v,In a casual barter there is generally no true equilibrium.
190,v,The case of systematic barter may be deferred.
190,v,Market for unique or rare things.
190,v,Illustration from a local corn-market of a true though temporary equilibrium.
192,v,The latent assumption, that the dealers’ willingness to spend money is nearly constant throughout, is generally valid as to a corn-market;
192,v,but in a labour market the exceptions are often important. This difference has important results in theory and in practice.
192,v,Reference to an Appendix on Barter.
193,v,Transition to normal values.
193,v,Nearly all dealings in commodities that are not very perishable, are affected by calculations of the future; and we are now to consider slow and gradual adjustments of supply and demand.
193,v,The account of supply price carried a little further.
193,2,4 The Investment and Distribution of Resources
194,v,The account of supply price carried a little further.
194,v,Factors of production.
194,v,There is great variety in the relative importance of different elements of cost of production.
194,v,The principle of substitution.
195,v,The position from which we start. We assume free play for demand and supply in the market.
195,v,General conditions of demand.
195,v,The conditions of supply will vary with the length of time to which reference is made. But we may provisionally regard normal supply price as the expenses of production, including gross earnings of management, of a representative firm.
196,v,The construction of the list of prices at which a thing can be supplied; or its supply schedule.
196,v,What is meant by equilibrium.
196,v,Equilibrium amount and equilibrium price.
196,v,Stable equilibria, the conditions under which they occur.
196,v,Oscillations about a position of stable equilibrium are seldom rhythmical.
197,v,Loose connection between supply price and real cost of production; significance of the phrases Normal equilibrium and In the long run.
197,v,Influences of utility and cost of production on value.
198,v,The former preponderates in market values: the latter in normal values. 
198,v,The business man is concerned with money costs; but the evolution of 
200,b,20200203:+31=200=70% 286
200,2,5 Equilibrium of Normal Demand and Supply, continued, with Reference to Long and Short Periods 
200,v,The policy of investment for a distant return may be clearly seen in the case of a man who makes a thing for his own use.
200,i,compound interest=korkoa korolle
201,i,If the two motives, one deterring , the other impelling, seemed equally balanced, he would be on the margin of doubt.
201,v,Transition to the investment of capital by the modern undertaker of business enterprises.
201,v,Accumulation of past and discounting of future outlays and receipts.
202,v,The principle of substitution.
202,v,The margin of profitableness is not a mere point on any one route, but a line intersecting all routes.
202,v,Affinities between the principles of substitution, of diminishing utility and diminishing return. The correlation of consumption and production.
203,v,The distribution of resources in domestic economy.
203,v,The distribution of resources in business economy. Illustration from the building trade.
204,v,Prime cost. Prime or special cost.
204,v,Supplementary and total cost.
204,v,The division between prime and supplementary costs varies with the duration of the undertaking. Illustration from wages and salaries.
204,v,Illustration from outlay on plant.
205,v,This influence of the element of time is further developed in Chs. V. and VIII.— X.
205,v,The distinction between prime and supplementary costs operates even where neither are reckoned in money.
207,2,CHAPTER V EQUILIBRIUM OF NORMAL DEMAND AND SUPPLY, CONTINUED, WITH REFERENCE TO LONG AND SHORT PERIODS
207,v,The difficulties discussed in this chapter as to the element of time are latent in ordinary discourse, where the use of the term Normal is elastic.
207,v,Illustration from the cloth trade.
208,v,The complex problem of value must be broken up.
208,v,Fiction of a stationary state.
209,v,In a stationary state the doctrine of value would be simple.
209,v,But in the real world a simple doctrine value is worse than none.
209,v,Modifications of the fiction of a stationary state bring us nearer to real life and help to break up a complex problem.
210,v,Illustration from the fishing trade.
210,v,An increase in the amount demanded generally raises short-period supply price; but not necessarily long-period supply price.
211,v,Average and normal prices.
211,v,Restatement of the main result.
211,v,Nature of marginal production.
211,v,The general drift of the term Normal supply price for short and long periods.
212,v,For short periods the stock of appliances of production are practically fixed, but their employment varies with demand.
212,v,Where there is much fixed capital, prices can fall far below their normal level without reaching special or prime cost;
212,v,but such a fall is opposed by many causes, mostly indirect.
212,v,The marginal unit is a whole process of production rather than a parcel of goods.
213,v,General conclusions as to short periods
213,v,In long periods the flow of appliances for production is adjusted to the demand for the products of those appliances.
213,v,There is no sharp division between long and short periods.
214,v,Classification of problems of value by the periods to which they refer.
216,2,6 Joint and Composite Demand. Joint and Composite Supply 
216,v,Indirect or derived demand.
216,v,Joint demand.
216,v,Illustration taken from a labour dispute in the building trade.
217,v,Law of derived demand.
217,v,Cautions as to the practical applications of the theory.
217,v,Conditions under which a check to supply may raise much the price of a requisite of production.
218,v,Moderating influence of the principle of substitution. and of the power of modifying the proportions which the several factors of production of a commodity bear to one another.
218,v,and of the power of modifying the proportions which the several factors of production of a commodity bear to one another.
218,v,Rival demands.
219,v,Joint supply.
219,v,If the proportions of joint products can be modified, their several costs may be discovered.
219,v,Composite supply.
220,v,Instances of intricate relations between the values of different things.
224,2,7 Prime and Total Cost in Relation to Joint Products. Cost of Marketing. Insurance against Risk. Cost of Reproduction 
224,v,Supplementary costs of joint products. Difficulty arising when one branch of a business supplies a raw material to another.
225,v,Difficulties as to the joint products of the same business, are often overcome through the power of varying the details of the plan of production.
225,v,The difficulty of assigning to each branch of a business its share of the expenses of marketing becomes very great when the law of increasing return acts strongly; especially when the production falls into the hands of a few large firms.
225,v,details of the plan of production.
226,v,Economies in production are often balanced by local facilities for marketing.
226,v,An insurance cannot be effected at moderate rates against all business risks.
227,v,Caution against overlooking certain insurance expenses,
227,v,But uncertainty is an evil in itself, and an average gain generally counts for less, the more uncertain the elements of which it is made up. and though the market value of a thing is sometimes nearer cost of reproduction than cost of production, it is not governed by cost of reproduction.
229,2,8 Marginal Costs in Relation to Values. General Principles 
229,v,This and the next three chapters continue the main argument of chapters IV.– VI.
229,v,Reasons for dealing here only with material, implements, etc.
230,vRestatement of the principle of substitution.,
230,v,Illustrations.
231,v,Illustration of the way in which the net product of an agent of production may be estimated.
231,v,The diminishing return from disproportionate use of any agent of production, is akin to, but distinct from, Diminishing Return of land in general to more intensive cultivation, however appropriate.
232,v,Marginal uses and costs do not govern value, but are governed together with value by the general relations of demand and supply.
232,v,The terms Interest and Profits are directly applicable to fluid capital;
233,v,The central doctrine of this group of chapters.
234,2,9 Marginal Costs in Relation to Values.General Principles, continued 
234,v,The essential features of rent proper are seen most clearly in an imaginary instance, aided by illustrations drawn from the incidence of taxes.
235,v,Shifting forwards and backwards.
235,v,A local tax on printing.
235,v,A tax on printing presses.
236,v,A limited stock of large stones harder than diamonds.
236,v,The purchaser would expect them to yield interest on their price.
236,v,But the net income which he actually reaped from them would be governed by the value of their services, uncontrolled by fresh supplies dependent on cost.
237,v,Next suppose that the supply of stones can be increased slowly; and lastly that it can be increased quickly, and that the stones are quickly worn out.
237,v,The above string of hypotheses begins with rents proper, and in this case a tax remains on the owners.
237,v,At the other extreme are incomes kept close to interest (or profits) on money cost of production and here a tax falls upon users.
237,v,Intermediate stages.
238,v,Prime costs relatively to long periods become supplementary relatively to short; and there is a corresponding transition from interest on free capital to quasi-rents of embodied capital.
238,v,Economics learns from physics to reason about pure elements, though they are rarely isolated by nature.
239,v,The distinction between differential rents and scarcity rents is not fundamental.
241,2,10 Marginal Costs in Relation to Agricultural Values 
242,v,Summary of relations between marginal costs and value of agricultural produce in general in an old country.
243,v,Rent emerges as a surplus as demand for produce and the supply of labour increase.
244,v,Illustration from the ultimate incidence of a tax on agricultural produce in general.
244,v,The public value of land.
245,v,Implicit assumption that the land is turned to reasonably good account.
245,v,Relations between marginal costs and value for any one kind of agricultural produce.
245,v,The marginal costs and value of hops are governed by Substitution in combination with Diminishing Return to cultivation in general.
245,v,Competition of different crops for the same land: the incidence of a special tax on hops.
245,v,Contrast between a general and a local tax on hops
246,v,Arguments relating to rent in relation to the value of a single crop extended to quasirent of farm-buildings, etc.
246,v,Parallel case in manufacture.
246,b,20200205:+46=246=88% 286
246,v,The principles of these two chapters are not applicable to mines.
249,2,11 Marginal Costs in Relation to Urban Values 
249,v,Influence of situation on the value of agricultural land.
249,v,In all trades access to external economies depends partly on situation.
249,v,Situation value. Site value
249,v,Exceptional cases in which the income derived from advantageous situation is earned by individual effort and outlay. Illustrations from Saltaire and Pullman City.
250,v,Improvements effected at the joint expense of the landowners concerned.
250,v,Analogous cases in the laying out of suburban property.
251,v,But as a rule site value owes little to the owner of the site.
251,v,Causes that govern the capital value of building land.
251,v,Ground-rents for long leases are based on estimates of future true site values.
252,v,The relations of marginal costs to the value of the product and to the rent of the land used are similar in manufacture and agriculture.
252,v,The margin of building.
252,v,The competition of factories, warehouses, etc. for the same land.
252,v,The rents of traders in relation to their prices.
254,,v,A rise of ground values may be an indication of a scarcity of space that will tend to raise traders’ prices.
257,2,12 Equilibrium of Normal Demand and Supply, continued, with Reference to the Law of Increasing Return 
257,v,The tendency to increasing return does not act quickly.
257,v,Differences between demand and supply in regard to elasticity.
257,v,Elasticity of supply.
258,v,We must distinguish the economies of a whole industry and of an individual firm.
258,v,Facilities for increased production often opposed by difficulties of marketing.
259,v,The solution of the difficulty is in the action of a representative firm.
259,v,We thus get at the true long-period marginal cost, falling with a gradual increase of demand.
259,v,The pure theory in its earlier stages diverges but little from actual facts; but if pushed far its practical value rapidly diminishes.
260,b,20200207:+14=260=91% 286
260,2,13 Theory of Changes of Normal Demand and Supply, in Relation to the Doctrine of Maximum Satisfaction 
261,v,Transition to substantive changes in the condition of demand and supply
261,v,What is meant by an increase of normal demand, or of normal supply.
261,v,Effects of an increase of normal demand.
262,v,Protection to nascent industries.
262,v,Effects of increased facilities of supply.
262,v,Changes that raise or lower the supply schedule may be represented by a tax or bounty.
262,v,The case of constant return.
262,v,The case of diminishing return.
263,v,The case of increasing return.
263,v,There is a limited sense in which the doctrine is generally true.
263,v,But when not taken in this limited sense, the doctrine is open to great exceptions.
264,v,It assumes that equal sums of money measure equal utilities to all concerned; and it ignores the fact that a fall in price due to improvements benefits consumers without injuring producers.
264,v,Aggregate satisfaction can therefore primâ acie be increased beyond the level attained by the free play of demand and supply.
264,v,We are not here concerned with the indirect evils of artificial arrangements for this purpose.
265,v,Restatement of primâ facie exceptions to the doctrine that it is best for all that each should spend his income as he pleases.
269,2,14 The Theory of Monopolies
269,v,We are now to compare the monopolist’s gains from a high price with the benefits to the public of a low price.
269,v,Net Monopoly Revenue.
270,v,The Monopoly revenue schedule.
271,v,A tax, fixed in total amount, on a monopoly will not diminish production; nor will one proportioned to monopoly revenue, but it will have that effect if it is proportional to the quantity produced.
271,v,In comparing monopoly price with competition price, it must be remembered that a monopoly can generally be worked economically.
272,v,But this raises questions which are incapable of general solution.
272,v,The monopolist may lower his price with a view to the future development of his business, or from a direct interest in the welfare of consumers.
273,v,The total benefit of a monopoly is the sum of the monopoly revenue and consumers’ surplus.
273,v,But if the consumers’ surplus be counted at only a fraction of its actual value, the sum of the two may be called compromise benefit.
273,v,General results.
273,v,The importance of the interests of consumers has been underestimated, because direct personal experience seldom helps much towards forming correct estimates of them, and our public statistics are not yet properly organized.
274,v,Statistical arguments are often misleading at first; but free discussion clears away statistical fallacies.
274,v,Hopes for the future from the statistical study of demand and consumers’ surplus.
275,v,The problem of two monopolies dependent on each other’s aid is incapable of a universal solution.
275,v,but such a fusion would in many cases introduce greater and more lasting discords than it removed.
281,2,15 Summary of the General Theory of Equilibrium of Demand and Supply 
281,v,Ch. I. On markets.
281,v,Ch. II. Temporary equilibrium of demand and supply
281,v,Chs. III. IV. V. Equilibrium of normal demand and supply.
281,v,The element of time. Long period or true normal price.
282,v,Short-period normal price or sub-normal price.
282,v,Ch. VI. Joint and composite demand and supply.
282,v,Ch. VII. Distribution of supplementary costs.
282,v,Chs. VIII.— XI. The value of an appliance for production in relation to that of the things produced by it.
283,v,Ch. XII. The influence of the law of increasing return on supply price does not show its true character in short periods.
283,v,Shortcomings of the Statical Method.
284,v,Its operation in long periods.
284,v,Ch. XIII. Changes in normal demand and supply, with some reference to the doctrine of Maximum Satisfaction.
284,v,Ricardo’s theory of value.
260,b,20200207:+14=260=91% 286
285,b,20200209:+=260=100% 286
285,1,Book VI The Distribution of the National Income 
285,2,1 Preliminary Survey of Distribution 
285,2,2 Preliminary Survey of Distribution, continued 
,2,3 Earnings of Labour 
,2,4 Earnings of Labour, continued 
,2,5 Earnings of Labour, continued
,2,6 Interest of Capital 
,2,7 Profits of Capital and Business Power 
,2,8 Profits of Capital and Business Power, continued 
,2,9 Rent of Land 
,2,10 Land Tenure 
,2,11 General View of Distribution 
,2,12 General Influences of Progress on Value 
,2,13 Progress in Relation to Standards of Life 
Appendix A The Growth of Free Industry and Enterprise
,2,6 Interest of Capital 
,2,7 Profits of Capital and Business Power 
,2,8 Profits of Capital and Business Power, continued 
,2,9 Rent of Land 
,2,10 Land Tenure 
,2,11 General View of Distribution 
,2,12 General Influences of Progress on Value 
,2,13 Progress in Relation to Standards of Life 
Appendix A The Growth of Free Industry and Enterprise
Appendix B The Growth of Economic Science 
Appendix C The Scope and Method of Economics 
Appendix D Uses of Abstract Reasoning in Economics 
Appendix E Definitions of Capital 
Appendix F Barter 
Appendix G The Incidence of Local Rates, with Some Suggestions as to Policy 
Appendix H Limitations of the Use of Statical Assumptions in Regard to
Increasing Return Appendix I Ricardo’s Theory of Value 
Appendix J The Doctrine of the Wages-Fund 
Appendix K Certain Kinds of Surplus 
Appendix L Ricardo’s Doctrine as to Taxes and Improvements in Agriculture Mathematical 
Appendix Index Comparative Index
### enrufi
#eng Extremely confusing and dull
The property of confusingness is completely due to Kindle. At the same time as the screen has been improved and become almost satisfactory for easy reading and page numbering introduced as an alternative for location markings, this book is split into two parts: one with reasonable page numbering and the other provided with a single page number of 285. What is the sense of this big blunder? Of course no sense.
The other property of dullness is a relative one, could be due to the author or to the reader. In this case I am ready to take it completely on my account. It is only confusing that I have just read another book by the same author about broadly the same subject matter, not finding it at all dull reading, but very entertaining instead! (This dull Principles of Economics and the other entertaining Elements of Economics of Industry). This dull Principles was published in 1890 and the entertaining Elements only two years later in 1892. Has the author been able to improve so completely or has the reader so completely dropped to a low mood. The latter seems more probable although does not feel so at all. There is, however, a hint that some other readers might have felt the same way as the present. Included in this present volume, in its latter equally sized part as the first, there is a comprehensive another treatment of the same subject matters as in the first part. Maybe it is more entertaining? 
But at least just now, this reader is too fed up with principles of economics to risk another adventure on the all-embracing next page of 285. Instead giving indignantly the lowest ever number of stars 2* as assessment of this book. ajk
#rus Очень запутанный и скучный
 Свойство путаницы полностью связано с Kindle.  В то же время, когда экран был улучшен и стал почти удовлетворительным для удобного чтения и нумерации страниц, представленной в качестве альтернативы для маркировки местоположений location, эта книга разделена на две части: одна с разумной нумерацией страниц, а другая - с одним номером страницы 285. В чем смысл этой большой ошибки?  Конечно нет смысла.
 Другое свойство тупости является относительным, может быть связано с автором или читателем.  В этом случае я готов полностью принять это на свой счет.  Это только сбивает с толку, что я только что прочитал другую книгу того же автора о широко той же теме, не находя это вообще скучным чтением, но очень интересным вместо этого!  (Это скучные Principles of Economics и прочие развлекательные Elements of Economics).  Эти скучные «Принципы» были опубликованы в 1890 году, а «Интересные элементы» - только два года спустя, в 1892 году. Удалось ли автору добиться такого полного совершенствования, или читатель настолько упал до плохого настроения?  Последнее кажется более вероятным, хотя вовсе не ощущается.  Однако есть намек на то, что некоторые другие читатели чувствовали то же самое, что и настоящее.  Включенный в этот настоящий том, в его последней равной по размеру части, как и в первой, есть еще один комплексный подход к тем же предметам, что и в первой части.  Может быть, это более интересно?
 Но, по крайней мере, сейчас, этот читатель слишком сыт по горло принципами экономики, чтобы рисковать новым приключением на всеобъемлющей следующей странице 285. Вместо этого, с возмущением приводя самое низкое из когда-либо чисел звезд 2* в качестве оценки этой книги. g&a
#fin Erittäin sekava ja tylsä
 Hämmennyksen ominaisuus johtuu täysin Kindlestä.  Samaan aikaan kun näyttöä on parannettu ja siitä on tullut melkein tyydyttävää helppoa lukemista ja sivunumerointi on otettu käyttöön vaihtoehtona location sijaintimerkinnöille, tämä kirja on jaettu kahteen osaan: toiseen jossa on järkevä sivunumerointi ja toiseen jossa on vain yksi sivunumero 285. Mikä on tämän suuren köömmähdyksen idea ja järki?  Ei tietysti mitään järkeä.
 Tylsyyden toinen ominaisuus on suhteellinen, johtuu tekijästä tai lukijasta.  Tässä tapauksessa olen valmis ottamaan sen kokonaan tililleni.  On hämmentävää, että olen juuri lukenut saman kirjailijan toisen kirjan laajasti tai pikemminkin tiukasti ottaen samasta aiheesta, enkä ole pitänyt sitä lainkaan tylsänä lukemisena, vaan sen sijaan erittäin viihdyttävänä!  (Tämä tylsä ​​Principles of Economics ja se toinen viihdyttävät Elements of Economics).  Tämä tylsä ​ julkaistiin vuonna 1890 ja viihdyttävä vain kaksi vuotta myöhemmin vuonna 1892. Onko kirjailija pystynyt parantamaan näin nopeasti vai onko lukija niin täysin pudonnut tylsyyteen?  Jälkimmäinen näyttää todennäköisemmältä, vaikka ei tunnu siltä ollenkaan.  On kuitenkin olemassa vihje, että jotkut muut lukijat olisivat voineet tuntea samalla tavalla kuin nykyinen.  Tähän nykyiseen osaan sisältyy, sen jälkimmäiseen yhtä suureen osaan kuin ensimmäinen, kattava toinen käsittely samasta aiheesta kuin on ensimmäisessä osassa.  Ehkä se on viihdyttävämpi?
 Mutta ainakin juuri nyt, tämä lukija on liian kyllästynyt taloustieteen periaatteisiin riskeeratakseen uuteen seikkailuun kaiken kattavalle seuraavalle sivulle. Sen sijaan annan harmistuneena kaikkien aikojen pienimmän määrän tähtiä 2* omana tämän kirjan arviointina. g&a
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#20200118-Kindle
What do my 82 years old eyes still see! Reading Introduction to Marshall's Principles of Economics, screen  bottom with page numbers instead of Locations, just the way I have been suggesting. Hurrah, Kindle! Hope only that this is a permanent innovation in Kindle, a good example for all other reading programs.
Another praiseworth innovation from the reader's point of view is the adding of violet summaries, maybe direct transformations from the squared as used in another ebook by Marshall. 
#20200124-Kindle
Either you are mad or you are driving me skitsofrenic with your completely foolish combination of location and page numbering and secret number, letter, Roman number confusion or has Marshall been sick and then recovered when writing Economics of Industry.! This last suspicion arises from the first 30 pages of the text, a confused bla bla compared with the text of Economics. Interesting to see what follows. Not intending of abandon the book, however.
A constructive suggestion for you: Drop altogether the Kindle way of serving book to the reader. Make all your books Adobe Acrobat. I am reading another book in Acrobat. Ten times  more pleasant than your skitsofrenic confusion.
#20200126-Kindle
It seems more and more evident that these violet remarks constitute a good summary of the book. Why not publish them as a list at the end of the book? Indeed, they really constitute a gold summary of thd book. They should be used in all this kind of educative texts. I have established a new category for them in my reading notess and will myself separate this kind of notes if not provided originally like here. In mind another author who gives all along this kind of mini summaries. I regreet having written about skitsofrenic confusion. These summries change the situation.
#20200128
Very dull reading. Too detailed and too abstract
#20200130-Kindle
On behalf of millions of readers thank you very, very much for the improved bottom line! Current page number of total and even percentage of total. My time for making notes has shortened to half of what it used to be. Now on page 93 of 285. Only 33% and not 17% as the new bottom line maintains. But that is a minor blunder and not a big blunder as has been the whole use of location. I am pretty sure that no reader has complained, but many praised this really big improvement. Welcome reason and goodbye typing of unnecessary digits in notes!
Thank you also for the frequent colored summaries of the text. They are really ingenious. I only wonder, wht is their origin, Marshall or Amazon. If M, he could almost have left out the long text. It is extremely dull, mole path under the soil in glaring contradiction to Marshall's later text in his book Economics of the Industry. Astonishing! Amazon helping the classic to be understood! Hoorray!
#20200210-Kindle
I am confused. All 285 pages of the book: reading completed, but still only 50% and aa lot of headings given with the page number 285. The device has turned extremely slow. Maybe because the internal memory is almost full, 5mb of 32gb. SD is almost unused, less than 5mb used of 32gb. I would perhaps try something, but am discouraged, because the book has been extremely dull reading.
Highest possible praise and honour to Kindle for improvements of the reading screen! They have halved the time needed for making notes. Special thanks for the possibility of using page numbers instead of locations. Hope this continues with other books and I never more need see location markings. 
Two important improvements are still pending: 
1. use of bookmark for picking to clipboard at any moment the current page number and timestamp in the only reasonable form of yyyymmddhhmm. 
2. Showing at return from notes to outside notepad the spot where reading was interrupted for making notes.
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